ヒューストン・ステュアート・チェンバレン
Houston Stewart Chamberlain, 1855-1927
ヒューストン・ステュアート・チェンバレン
Houston Stewart Chamberlain, 1855-1927
ヒューストン・スチュワート・チェンバレン（/ˈtəmbɪ; 1855年9月9日 - 1927年1月9日）は、政治哲学と自然科学に関する著作を残したイギリス系ドイツ人の哲学者である。1899年に出版された『19世紀の基礎』（全2 巻）は、20世紀初頭の汎ゲルマン的なフェルキッシュ運動に大きな影響を与え、後にナチスの人種政策における反ユダヤ主義に影響を及ぼした[2]。実際、 チェンバレンは「ヒトラーの洗礼者ヨハネ」とも呼ばれている[3]。
| Houston
Stewart Chamberlain (/ˈtʃeɪmbərlɪn/; 9 September 1855 – 9 January 1927)
was a British-German philosopher who wrote works about political
philosophy and natural science. His writing promoted German
ethnonationalism, antisemitism, and scientific racism; and he has been
described as a "racialist writer".[1] His best-known book, the
two-volume Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (The Foundations
of the Nineteenth Century),[2] published 1899, became highly
influential in the pan-Germanic Völkisch movements of the early 20th
century, and later influenced the antisemitism of Nazi racial policy.
Indeed, Chamberlain has been referred to as "Hitler's John the
Baptist".[3] Born in Hampshire, Chamberlain emigrated to Dresden in adulthood out of an adoration for composer Richard Wagner, and was later naturalised as a German citizen. He married Eva von Bülow, Wagner's daughter, in December 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death.[notes 1] |
ヒュー
ストン・スチュワート・チェンバレン（/ˈtəmbɪ; 1855年9月9日 -
1927年1月9日）は、政治哲学と自然科学に関する著作を残したイギリス系ドイツ人の哲学者である。1899年に出版された『19世紀の基礎』（全2
巻）は、20世紀初頭の汎ゲルマン的なフェルキッシュ運動に大きな影響を与え、後にナチスの人種政策における反ユダヤ主義に影響を及ぼした[2]。実際、
チェンバレンは「ヒトラーの洗礼者ヨハネ」とも呼ばれている[3]。 ハンプシャー州に生まれたチェンバレンは、作曲家リヒャルト・ワーグナーへの憧れから成人後にドレスデンに移住し、後にドイツに帰化した。ワーグナーの死後25年経った1908年12月に、ワーグナーの娘であるエヴァ・フォン・ビューローと結婚した[注釈 1]。 |
| Early life and education Houston Stewart Chamberlain was born in Southsea, Hampshire, England, the son of Rear Admiral William Charles Chamberlain, RN. His mother, Eliza Jane, daughter of Captain Basil Hall, RN, died before he was a year old, leading to his being brought up by his grandmother in France. His elder brother was Japanologist and Tokyo Imperial University professor Basil Hall Chamberlain. Chamberlain's poor health frequently led him to being sent to the warmer climates of Spain and Italy for the winter. This constant moving about made it hard for Chamberlain to form lasting friendships. |
幼少期と教育 ヒューストン・スチュワート・チェンバレンは、英国ハンプシャー州のサウスシーでウィリアム・チャールズ・チェンバレン海軍少将の息子として生まれた。母イライザ・ジェーンはバジル・ホール海軍大尉の娘だったが、1歳になる前に亡くなり、フランスで祖母に育てられた。兄は日本学者で東京帝国大学教授のバジル・ホール・チェンバレン。チェンバレンが体調を崩したため、冬になると暖かいスペインやイタリアに送られることが多くなった。このような移動の多い生活では、長続きする友人関係を築くのは難しい。 |
| Cheltenham college Chamberlain's education began at a lycée in Versailles and continued mostly on the continent, but his father had planned a military career for his son. At the age of eleven he was sent to Cheltenham College, an English boarding school that produced many Army and Navy officers.[4] Chamberlain grew up in a self-confident, optimistic, Victorian atmosphere that celebrated the nineteenth century as the "Age of Progress"; a time of growing wealth, scientific discoveries, technological advances and democratic political reforms; a world that many Victorians expected to get progressively better and better with Britain leading the way for the rest of the world.[5] Chamberlain grew up supportive of the Liberal Party, and shared the general values of 19th-century British liberalism such as a faith in progress, of a world that could only get better, of the greatness of Britain as a liberal democratic and capitalist society.[6] Chamberlain deeply disliked Cheltenham College, and felt lonely and out of place there.[7] The young Chamberlain was "a compulsive dreamer", more interested in the arts than in the military, and he developed a fondness for nature and a near-mystical sense of self.[8] Chamberlain's major interests in his studies at Cheltenham were the natural sciences, especially astronomy.[9] Chamberlain later recalled: "The starlight exerted an indescribable influence on me. The stars seemed closer to me, more gentle, more worthy of trust, and more sympathetic – for that is the only word which describes my feelings – than any of the people around me in school. For the stars, I experienced true friendship".[9] |
チェルトナム・カレッジ チェンバレンの教育はヴェルサイユのリセに始まり、ほとんど大陸で続けられたが、彼の父親は息子のために軍人のキャリアを計画していた。チェンバレンは、 19世紀を「進歩の時代」と称し、富の増大、科学的発見、技術の進歩、民主的政治改革の時代であり、多くのヴィクトリア人がイギリスが世界の道をリードし て徐々に良くなっていくと期待した、自信に満ち、楽観的でヴィクトリア朝の雰囲気で育った[4]。 チェンバレンは自由党の支持者として育ち、進歩への信頼、良くなるしかない世界、自由民主主義・資本主義社会としてのイギリスの偉大さなど、19世紀のイギリスの自由主義の一般的な価値観を共有していた[6]。 チェルトナム・カレッジを深く嫌い、孤独と居場所のなさを感じていた[7]。 若いチェンバレンは「強迫的な夢想家」で、軍事よりも芸術に興味を持ち、自然を好み、神秘的ともいえる自己意識を育んでいた[8]。 チェルトナムでの勉学においてチェンバレンの主な関心は自然科学、特に天文学であった[9]。 チェンバレンは後にこう回想している。「星の光は私に何とも言えない影響を与えた。星は、学校で私の周りにいたどの人よりも、私に近く、優しく、信頼に値 し、同情的であるように思えた--私の気持ちを表す言葉はこれだけである。星に対して、私は真の友情を経験したのです」[9]。 |
| Embracing conservativism During his youth, Chamberlain – while not entirely rejecting at this point his liberalism – became influenced by the romantic conservative critique of the Industrial Revolution. Bemoaning the loss of "Merry Old England", this view argued for a return to a highly romanticized portrait of a mythic, bucolic period of English history that had never existed, with the people living happily in harmony with nature on the land overseen by a benevolent, cultured elite.[8] In this critique, the Industrial Revolution was seen as a disaster which forced people to live in dirty, overcrowded cities, doing dehumanizing work in factories while society was dominated by a philistine, greedy middle class.[8] The prospect of serving as an officer in India or elsewhere in the British Empire held no attraction for him. In addition, he was a delicate child with poor health. At the age of fourteen he had to be withdrawn from school. After Cheltenham, Chamberlain always felt out of place in Britain, a society whose values Chamberlain felt were not his values, writing in 1876: "The fact may be regrettable but it remains a fact; I have become so completely un-English that the mere thought of England and the English makes me unhappy".[10] Chamberlain then travelled to various spas around Europe, accompanied by a Prussian tutor, Mr Otto Kuntze, who taught him German and interested him in German culture and history. Fascinated by Renaissance art and architecture, Chamberlain learned Italian and planned to settle in Florence for a time.[11] |
保守主義の受容 青年期のチェンバレンは、この時点で自由主義を完全に否定したわけではないが、産業革命に対するロマンチックな保守主義的批判に影響を受けるようになっ た。この批判では、産業革命は、社会が俗物的で貪欲な中産階級によって支配される一方で、人々は汚く過密な都市に住み、工場で非人間的な労働を強いられる 災厄と見なされていた[8]。 インドや大英帝国の他の場所で将校として働くことは、彼にとって何の魅力もなかった。加えて、彼は繊細な子供で、健康状態も良くなかった。14歳の時には 学校を退学せざるを得なかった。チェルトナム以降、チェンバレンは常に英国に居場所がないと感じていた。チェンバレンの価値観は自分の価値観ではないと感 じ、1876年に次のように書いている。「私は完全に非英国人になってしまったので、イギリスやイギリス人のことを考えるだけで不幸になる」[10] チェンバレンはその後、プロイセン人の家庭教師オットー・クンツェに連れられてヨーロッパ各地の温泉を訪れ、ドイツ語を教え、ドイツの文化や歴史に興味を 持った。ルネッサンス期の芸術と建築に魅せられたチェンバレンはイタリア語を学び、一時期フィレンツェに定住することを計画した[11]。 |
| University of Geneva and racial theory Chamberlain attended the University of Geneva, in French-speaking Switzerland. There he studied under Carl Vogt, who was a supporter of racial typology,[12] as well as under chemist Carl Gräbe, botanist Johannes Müller Argoviensis, physicist and parapsychologist Marc Thury, astronomer Emile Plantamour, and other professors. Chamberlain's main interests as a student revolved around systematic botany, geology, astronomy, and later the anatomy and physiology of the human body.[13] In 1881, he earned a baccalauréat ès sciences physiques et naturelles ("baccalaureate in physical and natural sciences"). |
ジュネーブ大学と人種論 チェンバレンは、スイスのフランス語圏にあるジュネーヴ大学に入学した。そこで彼は、人種類型論の支持者であったカール・フォクトをはじめ[12]、化学 者のカール・グレーベ、植物学者のヨハネス・ミュラー・アルゴヴィエンシス、物理学者で超心理学者のマルク・トゥリー、天文学者のエミール・プランタムー ル、その他の教授に師事していた。学生時代の主な関心は、体系的な植物学、地質学、天文学、そして後に人体の解剖学と生理学に及んだ[13]。1881年 に物理学と自然科学のバカロレア（Baccalauréat ès sciences physiques et naturelles）を取得した。 |
| Botany dissertation: theory of vital force In Geneva, Chamberlain continued working towards a doctorate in botany, but he later abandoned that project due to ill health. The text of what would have been Chamberlain's doctoral dissertation was published in 1897 as Recherches sur la sève ascendante ("Studies on rising sap"), but this publication did not culminate in any further academic qualifications.[14] In his preface, Chamberlain quoted from a letter by Prof. Julius Wiesner of the University of Vienna praising Chamberlain's work.[15] Chamberlain's book was based on his own experimental observations of water transport in various vascular plants. Against the conclusions of Eduard Strasburger, Julius von Sachs, and other leading botanists, he argued that his observations could not be explained by the application of the fluid mechanical theories of the day to the motion of water in the plants' xylem conduits. Instead, he claimed that his results evidenced other processes, associated with the action of living matter and which he placed under the heading of a force vitale ("vital force"). Chamberlain summarised his thesis in the book's introduction: Without the participation of these vital functions it is quite simply impossible for water to rise to heights of 150 feet, 200 feet and beyond, and all the efforts that one makes to hide the difficulties of the problem by relying on confused notions drawn from physics are little more reasonable than the search for the philosopher's stone.[16] In response to Strasburger's complaint that a vitalistic explanation of the ascent of sap "sidesteps the difficulties, calms our concerns, and thus manages to seduce us", Chamberlain retorted that "life is not an explanation, nor a theory, but a fact".[17] Although most plant physiologists currently regard the ascent of sap as adequately explained by the passive mechanisms of transpirational pull and root pressure,[18] some scientists have continued to argue that some form of active pumping is involved in the transport of water within some living plants, though usually without referring to Chamberlain's work on the subject.[19][20][21] |
植物学の学位論文：生命力に関する理論 ジュネーブでチェンバレンは植物学の博士号を取得するための研究を続けていたが、その後体調を崩し、その研究は断念した。1897年に博士論文となるべき 文章が『上昇する樹液に関する研究』（Recherches sur la sève ascendante）として出版されたが、この出版によって、それ以上の学位は得られなかった[14]。 チェンバレンの著書は、様々な維管束植物における水の輸送に関する彼自身の実験的観察に基づいていた。エドワード・シュトラスブルガー、ユリウス・フォ ン・ザックス、その他の著名な植物学者の結論に対して、彼は、植物の木部管路における水の運動に当時の流体力学の理論を適用しても、自分の観察結果は説明 できないと主張したのである。チェンバレンが主張したのは、この現象は生命体の活動に関連した別のプロセスであり、それを「生命力（force vitale）」と呼ぶことにしたのだ。 チェンバレンは、この本の冒頭で、自分の論文を要約している。 そして、物理学から引き出された混乱した概念に頼ってこの問題の難しさを隠そうとする努力は、賢者の石を探すのと同じくらい理にかなっていない[16]」。 樹液の上昇に関する生命論的説明が「困難を回避し、我々の懸念を静め、こうして我々を誘惑することに成功した」というストラスバーガーの不満に対して、 チェンバレンは「生命は説明でも理論でもなく、事実である」と反論している[17]。 [17] 現在、ほとんどの植物生理学者は樹液の上昇を蒸散作用と根圧の受動的メカニズムによって十分に説明できると考えているが[18]、一部の科学者は、いくつ かの生きた植物内の水の輸送に何らかの形の能動的ポンプが関与していると主張し続けている、ただし通常はこのテーマに関するチェンバレンの研究に言及する ことはない[19][20][21]。 |
| Still Liberal: Accusing Disraeli of ruining England During his time in Geneva, Chamberlain, who always despised Benjamin Disraeli, came to hate his country more and more, accusing the Prime Minister of taking British life down to what Chamberlain considered to be his extremely low level.[22] During the early 1880s, Chamberlain was still a Liberal, "a man who approached issues from a firmly Gladstonian perspective and showed a marked antipathy to the philosophy and policies of British Conservatism".[23] Chamberlain often expressed his disgust with Disraeli, "the man whom he blamed in large measure for the injection of selfish class interest and jingoism into British public life in the next decades".[24] In 1881, he wrote to his family in Britain, praising William Ewart Gladstone for introducing the Land Bill to bring in "fair rents" in Ireland and withdrawing from the Transvaal.[25] An early sign of his anti-Semitism came in 1881 when he described the landlords in Ireland affected by the Land Bill as "blood-sucking Jews (sic)". The main landowning classes in Ireland then were Anglo-Irish gentiles, though at this stage of his life his anti-Semitic remarks were few and far between.[26] |
まだまだリベラル。イギリスをダメにしたディズレーリを非難 ジュネーブ滞在中、もともとベンジャミン・ディズレーリを軽蔑していたチェンバレンは、ますます祖国を憎むようになり、チェンバレンの考える極めて低いレ ベルまでイギリスの生活を低下させた首相を非難した[22] 1880年代初頭、チェンバレンはまだ自由主義者で「しっかりとグラッドストン的観点から問題に取り組み、イギリス保守主義の哲学と政策に著しい反感を示 した人物」であった。 [1881年にはイギリスにいる家族に宛てて、アイルランドに「公正な賃料」をもたらす土地法案を提出し、トランスヴァールから撤退したウィリアム・イ ワート・グラッドストンを賞賛する手紙を出している[25]。 彼の反ユダヤ主義の初期の兆候は、1881年に土地法案の影響を受けるアイルランドの地主を「血を吸うユダヤ人（sic）」と表現したことである [25]。当時のアイルランドの主な地主階級はアングロ・アイルランドの異邦人であったが、この段階では反ユダヤ主義的な発言はほとんどなかった [26]。 |
| Support of World Ice Theory Chamberlain was an early supporter of Hanns Hörbiger's Welteislehre ("World Ice Theory"), the theory that most bodies in our Solar System are covered with ice. Due in part to Chamberlain's advocacy, this became official cosmological dogma during the Third Reich.[27] Anti-scientific claims Chamberlain's attitude towards the natural sciences was somewhat ambivalent and contradictory – he later wrote: "one of the most fatal errors of our time is that which impels us to give too great weight to the so-called 'results' of science."[28] Still, his scientific credentials were often cited by admirers to give weight to his political philosophy.[13] Chamberlain rejected Darwinism, evolution and social Darwinism and instead emphasized "Gestalt" which he said derived from Goethe.[29] |
世界氷河説の支持 チェンバレンは、ハンス・ヘルビガーの「世界氷理論」（Welteislehre、太陽系のほとんどの天体は氷に覆われているという理論）の初期の支持者であった。チェンバレンの提唱もあり、第三帝国時代にはこれが宇宙論の公式ドグマとなった[27]。 反科学的主張 チェンバレンの自然科学に対する態度はやや両義的で矛盾しており、彼は後に「我々の時代の最も致命的な誤りの1つは、いわゆる科学の『結果』をあまりにも 重視するように促すものだ」と書いている[28]。 それでも、彼の政治哲学に重みを与えるために、科学的な資格はしばしば崇拝者によって引用されていた[13]。 チェンバレンはダーウィニズム、進化論、社会ダーウィニズムを拒否し、代わりにゲーテから派生したという「ゲシュタルト」を強調している[29]。 |
| Wagnerite An ardent Francophile in his youth, Chamberlain had a marked preference for speaking French over English.[30] It was only at the age of twenty three in November 1878, when he first heard the music of Richard Wagner—which struck him with all the force of a religious revelation—that Chamberlain became not only a Wagnerite, but an ardent Germanophile and Francophobe.[30][31] As he put later, it was then he realized the full "degeneracy" of the French culture that he had so admired compared to the greatness of the German culture that had produced Wagner, whom Chamberlain viewed as one of the great geniuses of all time.[30] In the music of Wagner, Chamberlain finally found the mystical, life-affirming spiritual force that he had been unsuccessfully seeking to find in British and French cultures.[30] Further increasing his love of Germany was that he had fallen in love with a German woman named Anna Horst, and she with him.[32] As Chamberlain's wealthy, elitist family back in Britain objected to him marrying the lower middle-class Horst on the grounds that she was socially unsuitable for him, this further estranged him from Britain, a place whose people Chamberlain regarded as cold, unfeeling, callous and concerned only with money.[32] By contrast, Chamberlain regarded Germany as the romantic "land of love", a place whose people had human feelings like love, and whose culture was infused with a special spirituality that brought out the best in humanity.[33] In 1883–1884, Chamberlain lived in Paris and worked as a stockbroker.[34] Chamberlain's attempts to play the Paris bourse ended in failure as he proved to be inept at business, and much of his hatred of capitalism stemmed from his time in Paris.[35] More happily for him, Chamberlain founded the first Wagner society in Paris and often contributed articles to the Revue wagnérienne, the first journal in France devoted to Wagner studies.[36] Together with his friend, the French writer Édouard Dujardin, Chamberlain did much to introduce Wagner to the French, who until then had largely ignored Wagner's music.[37] Thereafter he settled in Dresden, where "he plunged heart and soul into the mysterious depths of Wagnerian music and philosophy, the metaphysical works of the Master probably exercising as strong an influence upon him as the musical dramas".[13] Chamberlain immersed himself in philosophical writings, and became a Völkisch author, one of those concerned more with a highly racist understanding of art, culture, civilisation and spirit than with quantitative physical distinctions between groups.[38] This is evidenced by his huge treatise on Immanuel Kant[39] with its comparisons. His knowledge of Friedrich Nietzsche is demonstrated in that work (p. 183) and in Foundations (p. 153n). It was during his time in Dresden that Chamberlain came to embrace völkisch thought through his study of Wagner, and from 1884 onwards, anti-Semitic and racist statements became the norm in his letters to his family in Britain.[40] In 1888, Chamberlain wrote to his family proclaiming his joy at the death of the Emperor Friedrich III, a strong opponent of anti-Semitism whom Chamberlain called a "Jewish liberal", and rejoicing that his anti-Semitic son Wilhelm II was now on the throne.[41] June 1888 was an auspicious month for Chamberlain. Besides the death of the "Jew-lover" Friedrich III, June 1888 also saw Chamberlain's first visit to the Wahnfried to meet Cosima Wagner, the reclusive leader of the Wagner cult.[42] Chamberlain later recalled that Cosima Wagner had "electrified" him as he felt the "deepest love" for Wagner's widow while Wagner wrote to a friend that she felt a "great friendship" with Chamberlain "because of his outstanding learning and dignified character".[43] Wagner came to regard Chamberlain as her surrogate son.[44] Under her influence, Chamberlain abandoned his previous belief that art was a separate entity from other fields and came to embrace the völkisch belief of the unity of race, art, nation and politics.[44] By this time Chamberlain had met his first wife, the Prussian Anna Horst, whom he would divorce in 1905 after 28 years of marriage.[49][50] Chamberlain was an admirer of Richard Wagner, and wrote several commentaries on his works including Notes sur Lohengrin ("Notes on Lohengrin") (1892), an analysis of Wagner's drama (1892), and a biography (1895), emphasising in particular the heroic Teutonic aspects in the composer's works.[51] Stewart Spencer, writing in Wagner Remembered,[52] described Chamberlain's edition of Wagner letters as "one of the most egregious attempts in the history of musicology to misrepresent an artist by systematically censoring his correspondence". In particular, Wagner's lively sex life presented a problem for Chamberlain. Wagner had abandoned his first wife Minna, had an open affair with the married woman Mathilde Wesendonck and had started sleeping with his second wife Cosima while she was still married to her first husband.[53] Chamberlain in his Wagner biography went to considerable lengths to distort the Master's love-life such as implying that Wagner's relationship with Cosima von Bülow only started after the death of her first husband.[53] During his time in Dresden, Chamberlain like many other völkisch activists became fascinated with Hindu mythology and legend, and learned Sanskrit in order to read the ancient Indian epics like the Vedas and the Upanishads in their original form.[54] In these stories about ancient Aryan heroes conquering the Indian subcontinent, Chamberlain found a very appealing world governed by a rigid caste system with social inferiors firmly locked into their place; full of larger-than-life Aryan gods and aristocratic heroes and a world that focused on the spiritual at the expense of the material.[54] Since by this time, historians, archaeologists and linguists had all accepted that the Aryans ("light ones") of Hindu legend were an Indo-European people, Chamberlain had little trouble arguing that these Aryans were in fact Germanic peoples, and modern Germans had much to learn from Hinduism, stating "in the night of the inner life ... the Indian ... finds his way in the dark more surely than anyone".[54] For Chamberlain the Hindu texts offered a body of pure Aryan thought that made it possible to find the harmony of humanity and nature, which provided the unity of thought, purpose and action that provided the necessary spirituality for Aryan peoples to find true happiness in a world being destroyed by a soulless materialism.[55] The popularity of the Hindu texts with the völkisch movement explains why the swastika, an ancient Indian symbol, was adopted by the völkisch activists as one of their symbols. |
ワグネライト（ワーグナー崇拝） 1878年11月、23歳のときに初めてリヒャルト・ワーグナーの音楽を聴き、宗教的啓示を受けたかのような衝撃を受け、ワーグナー派であるだけでなく、 熱烈なドイツ嫌い、フランス嫌いになった[30][31]。 このとき、チェンバレンはワーグナーを生み出したドイツ文化の偉大さと比較して、それまで賞賛してきたフランス文化の「堕落」を実感したと後に語っている [30][31]。 チェンバレンはワーグナーの音楽に、それまでイギリスやフランスの文化に求めて失敗していた神秘的で生命を肯定する精神的な力をようやく見出した [30]。さらに彼のドイツへの愛情を深めたのは、アンナ・ホーストというドイツ女性と恋に落ち、彼女も彼と恋に落ちていたことである[32]。 [チェンバレンの裕福でエリート主義の家族は、中流以下のホルストとの結婚を社会的にふさわしくないとして反対したため、チェンバレンはイギリスという国 からさらに疎遠になった。 [1883年から1884年にかけて、チェンバレンはパリに住み、株式仲買人として働いていた[33]。 [また、資本主義に対する憎しみは、パリでの生活に起因するものであった[35]。より幸福なことに、チェンバレンはパリで最初のワーグナー協会を設立 し、フランスで最初のワーグナー研究専門誌である『Revue wagnérienne』にしばしば記事を寄稿した。 [友人でフランス人作家のエドゥアール・デュジャルダンと共に、それまでワーグナーの音楽をほとんど無視していたフランス人にワーグナーを紹介することに 大きく貢献した[37]。 その後、彼はドレスデンに居を構え、「彼はワーグナーの音楽と哲学の神秘的な深みに心を砕き、巨匠の形而上学的作品はおそらく音楽劇と同じくらい彼に強い 影響を及ぼした」[13]。 [13] チェンバレンは哲学的な著作に没頭し、フェルキッシュの作家となり、集団間の量的な物理的区別よりも芸術、文化、文明、精神に対する高度に人種差別的な理 解に関心を持つ者の一人となった[38]。これは、イマニュエル・カントに関する比較のある彼の巨大な論考によって証明される[39]。彼のフリードリ ヒ・ニーチェに関する知識はその著作（183頁）と『基礎』（153n頁）に示されている。チェンバレンがワーグナーの研究を通じてヴェルキッシュ（フェルキッシュ）思想を 受け入れるようになったのはドレスデン時代であり、1884年以降、イギリスの家族に宛てた手紙では反ユダヤ的、人種差別的な記述が常態化するようになっ た[40]。 [1888年、チェンバレンは家族に宛てて、チェンバレンが「ユダヤ人自由主義者」と呼んだ反ユダヤ主義の強力な反対者である皇帝フリードリヒ3世の死 と、反ユダヤ主義の息子ヴィルヘルム2世が王位についたことを喜ぶ手紙を出した[41] 1888年6月はチェンバレンにとって幸運な月であった。ユダヤ愛好家」フリードリヒ3世の死に加えて、1888年6月にはチェンバレンが初めてヴァーン フリードを訪れ、ワーグナー教団の隠遁者であるコジマ・ワーグナーに会った[42]。ワーグナーは友人に、「彼の優れた学習能力と品格ある性格により」 チェンバレンと「大きな友情」を感じたと書き送る一方で、ワーグナーの未亡人に「深い愛情」を感じて、コジマ・ワーグナーに「電撃を受けた」ことを後に回 想している[45]。 [43] ワーグナーはチェンバレンを彼女の代理息子とみなすようになった[44]。 彼女の影響により、チェンバレンは芸術が他の分野から分離した存在であるというそれまでの信念を捨て、民族、芸術、国家、政治の統一というヴェルキッシュ の信念を受け入れるようになる[44]。 この時までにチェンバレンは最初の妻であるプロイセン人のアンナ・ホルストと出会っており、28年間の結婚生活の後、1905年に離婚することになる [49][50]。チェンバレンはリヒャルト・ワーグナーの崇拝者で、彼の作品に関するいくつかの解説を書き、ワーグナーの演劇の分析（1892）、自伝 （1895）、特に彼の作品における勇ましいチュートン様式が強調された[51]...。 [Wagner Remembered』に寄稿したStewart Spencerは、チェンバレンのワーグナー書簡集を「音楽学の歴史において、芸術家の書簡を体系的に検閲することによって誤った表現をしようとした最も ひどい試みの一つ」と評している[52]。特に、ワーグナーの活発な性生活はチェンバレンにとって問題であった。ワーグナーは最初の妻ミンナを捨て、人妻 マチルド・ヴェーゼンドンクと公然と関係を持ち、2番目の妻コジマがまだ最初の夫と結婚している間に寝始めた[53]。チェンバレンはワーグナー伝で、 ワーグナーとコジマ・フォン・ブローの関係は最初の夫が死んでから始まったとほのめかすなど、師の恋愛を相当程度まで歪めている[53]。 ドレスデンでの滞在中、チェンバレンは他の多くのヴェルキッシュ活動家と同様にヒンドゥー教の神話と伝説に魅了され、ヴェーダやウパニシャッドといった古 代インドの叙事詩を原書で読むためにサンスクリット語を学んだ[54]。 古代アーリア人の英雄がインド亜大陸を征服するこれらの物語の中で、チェンバレンは、社会的劣位者がその場所にしっかりと固定された厳格なカースト制度に よって支配される非常に魅力的な世界、実物よりも大きなアーリア人の神々や貴族の英雄に満ち、物質を犠牲にして精神に焦点を当てた世界であることを知った [54] 。 この頃までには、歴史家、考古学者、言語学者のすべてが、ヒンドゥー伝説のアーリア人（「光のもの」）はインド・ヨーロッパ人であると認めていたので、 チェンバレンは、アーリア人は実際にはゲルマン人であり、現代のドイツ人はヒンドゥー教から学ぶべきことがたくさんあると主張することにほとんど問題はな く、「内面生活の夜において・・・インド人は・・誰よりも確実に暗闇で自分の道を見つけている」、と述べている [54]。 [ヒンドゥー教のテキストはチェンバレンにとって、人間と自然の調和を見出すことを可能にする純粋なアーリア人の思想の体系を提供し、それはアーリア人が 魂のない物質主義によって破壊されている世界で真の幸福を見出すために必要な精神性を提供する思考、目的、行動の統一をもたらした[55]。 フェルキッシュ運動におけるヒンドゥー教のテキストの人気は、古代インドの象徴であるスワスティカがフェルキッシュ活動家の象徴として取り入れられた理由 の1つを説明している。 |
| Champion of Wagnerism In 1889, he moved to Austria. During this time it is said his ideas on race began taking shape, influenced by the concept of Teutonic supremacy he believed embodied in the works of Richard Wagner and the French racist writer Arthur de Gobineau.[56] In his book Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, the aristocratic Gobineau, who had an obsessive hatred of commoners, had developed the theory of an Aryan master race as a way of bolstering his social standing[57] as he believed that French aristocrats like himself were the descendants of the Germanic Franks who had conquered the Roman province of Gaul while ordinary French people were the descendants of racially inferior Latin and Celtic peoples. Wagner had met Gobineau while on vacation in Rome in 1876, and the two had become friends.[58] Wagner was greatly influenced by Gobineau's theories, but could not accept Gobineau's theory of inevitable racial decay amongst what was left of the "Aryan race", instead preferring the idea of racial regeneration of the Aryans.[59] The Franco-Israeli historian Saul Friedländer opined that Wagner was the inventor of a new type of anti-Semitism, namely "redemptive anti-semitism", a type of völkisch anti-semitism that could explain all in the world in regards to Jew-hatred and offer a form of "redemption" for the anti-Semitic.[60] Chamberlain had attended Wagner's Bayreuth Festival in 1882 and struck up a close correspondence with his widow Cosima. In 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death, he married Eva von Bülow-Wagner, Franz Liszt's granddaughter and Richard Wagner's daughter (Wagner had started fathering children by Cosima while she was still married to Hans von Bülow – despite her surname, Eva was actually Wagner's daughter). The next year he moved to Germany and became an important member of the "Bayreuth Circle" of German nationalist intellectuals. As an ardent Wagnerite, Chamberlain saw it as his life's mission to spread the message of racial hatred which he believed Wagner had advocated.[61] Chamberlain explained his work in promoting the Wagner cult as an effort to cure modern society of its spiritual ills that he claimed were caused by capitalism, industrialisation, materialism, and urbanisation. Chamberlain wrote about modern society in the 1890s: Like a wheel that spins faster and faster, the increasing rush of life drives us continually further apart from each other, continually further from the 'firm ground of nature'; soon it must fling us out into empty nothingness.[62] In another letter, Chamberlain stated: If we do not soon pay attention to Schiller's thought regarding the transformation from the state of Need into the Aesthetic State, then our condition will degenerate into a boundless chaos of empty talk and arms foundries. If we do not soon heed Wagner's warning—that mankind must awaken to a consciousness of its "pristine holy worth"—then the Babylonian tower of senseless doctrines will collapse on us and suffocate the moral core of our being forever.[62] In Chamberlain's view, the purpose of the Wagner cult was nothing less than the salvation of humanity.[62] As such, Chamberlain became engulfed in the "redemptive anti-semitism" that was at the core of both Wagner's worldview and of the Wagner cult.[60] |
ワグネリズムの擁護者 1889年、彼はオーストリアに移住した。この頃、リヒャルト・ワーグナーやフランスの人種差別主義者アルチュール・ド・ゴビノーの作品に象徴されると信 じていたチュートン至上主義の概念の影響を受け、人種に関する彼の考えが形成され始めたと言われている[56]。 [その著書『Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines』において、平民を執拗に嫌う貴族のゴビノーは、自分の社会的地位を高める方法としてアーリア人の支配者民族説を展開していた[57]。 自分のようなフランスの貴族は、ローマ帝国のガリア地方を征服したゲルマン人のフランク人の子孫で、一般フランス人は人種的に劣ったラテン民族とケルト人 の子孫だと考えていたのだ。ワーグナーは1876年にローマで休暇中にゴビノーと出会い、友人となった[58]。ワーグナーはゴビノーの理論に大きな影響 を受けたが、ゴビノーの「アーリア民族」に残された人種は必然的に衰退するという理論を受け入れられず、アーリア人の人種再生という考え方が好まれた [59]。 [イスラエル人の歴史家ソール・フリードレンダーは、ワーグナーが新しいタイプの反ユダヤ主義、すなわち「救済的反ユダヤ主義」の発明者であり、ユダヤ人 嫌悪に関して世界のすべてを説明し、反ユダヤ主義者に一種の「救済」を提供できるタイプのVölkisch反ユダヤ主義だと論じた[60]。チャンバーレ インは1882年のワーグナーのバイロイト音楽祭に参加して、彼の未亡人コジマと親しく文通をするようになっていた。ワーグナーの死後25年経った 1908年、リストの孫娘でリヒャルト・ワーグナーの娘であるエヴァ・フォン・ビューロー＝ワーグナーと結婚した（ワーグナーはハンス・フォン・ビュー ローとの結婚中にコジマとの間に子供を作り始めており、エヴァは姓は違うが実際はワーグナーの娘であった）。翌年にはドイツに移り住み、ドイツの民族主義 的知識人である「バイロイト・サークル」の重要なメンバーとなる。チェンバレンは、熱烈なワーグナー信者として、ワーグナーが唱えたと思われる人種憎悪の メッセージを広めることを人生の使命と考えた[61]。チェンバレンは、ワーグナー教団の普及活動を、資本主義、工業化、物質主義、都市化が原因だとする 現代社会の心の病を癒そうとする取り組みだと説明した。チェンバレンは1890年代に現代社会についてこう書いている。 より速く回転する車輪のように、増大する生活の奔流は私たちを互いから絶えず引き離し、「自然の確固たる地面」から絶えず遠ざけ、やがて私たちを空の無の中に投げ出さなければならない[62]。 別の書簡でチェンバレンはこう述べている。 もし我々がすぐに必要状態から美的状態への転換に関するシラーの思想に注意を払わないならば、我々の状態は空虚な話と武器鋳造所の無限のカオスへと堕落す るだろう」[62]。もし我々がすぐにワーグナーの警告-人類はその「原始的な聖なる価値」の意識に目覚めなければならない-に耳を傾けないならば、無意 味な教義のバビロニアの塔は我々の上に倒れ、我々の存在の道徳的核心を永遠に窒息させるだろう[62]。 チェンバレンの考えでは、ワーグナー教団の目的は人類の救済に他ならなかった[62]。 そのため、チェンバレンはワーグナーの世界観とワーグナー教団の両方の中核にある「救済的反ユダヤ主義」にのめり込んでいくことになる[60]。 |
| Vienna years In September 1891, Chamberlain visited Bosnia and Herzegovina as a journalist.[63] In 1878, the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina had been occupied by Austria-Hungary; though the two provinces remained nominally Ottoman until 1908, in practice they were part of the Austrian empire from 1878 onwards. Because Bosnia-Herzegovina was still officially part of the Ottoman Empire, neither province was represented in the Austrian Reichsrat or the Hungarian Diet, and instead the two provinces were in practice a colony of Austria-Hungary. Chamberlain had been commissioned by the Austrian government to write propaganda glorying its colonial rule of Bosnia-Herzegovina for a Geneva newspaper. Chamberlain's articles about Bosnia reveal his increasing preference for dictatorship over democracy, with Chamberlain praising the Austrians for their utterly undemocratic rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina.[64] Chamberlain wrote that what he had seen in Bosnia-Herzegovina was the perfect example of Wagner's dictum: "Absolute monarch – free people!"[64] Chamberlain declared that the Bosnians were extremely lucky not to have the shambles and chaos of a democratic "parliamentary regime", instead being ruled by an idealist, enlightened dictatorship that did what was best for them.[64] Equally important in Chamberlain's Bosnian articles was his celebration of "natural man" who lived on the land as a small farmer as opposed to what Chamberlain saw as the corrupt men who lived in modern industrial, urban society.[65] At the time Chamberlain visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, the provinces had been barely touched by modernization, and for the most part, Bosnians continued to live much as their ancestors had done in the Middle Ages. Chamberlain was enchanted with what he saw, and forgetting for the moment that the purpose of his visit was to glorify Austrian rule, expressed much sadness in his articles that the "westernization" being fostered by the Austrians would destroy the traditional way of life in Bosnia.[66] Chamberlain wrote about the average Bosnian: [The Bosnian peasant] builds his house, he makes his shoes, and plough, etc.; the woman weaves and dyes the stuffs and cooks the food. When we have civilized these good people, when we have taken from them their beautiful costumes to be preserved in museums as objects of curiosity, when we have ruined their national industries that are so perfect and so primitive, when contact with us has destroyed the simplicity of their manner—then Bosnia will no longer be interesting to us.[65] Chamberlain's awe and pride in the tremendous scientific and technological advances of the 19th century were always tempered with an extremely strong nostalgia for what he saw as the simpler, better and more innocent time when people lived on the land in harmony with nature.[65] In his heart, Chamberlain was always a romantic conservative who idealised the Middle Ages and was never quite comfortable with the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution.[65] In Bosnia, Chamberlain saw an essentially medieval society that still moved to the ancient rhythm of life that epitomized his pastoral ideal. Remembering Bosnia several years later, Chamberlain wrote: The spirit of a natural man, who does everything and must create everything for himself in life, is decidedly more universal and more harmoniously developed than the spirit of an industrial worker whose whole life is occupied with the manufacturing of a single object ... and that only with the aid of a complicated machine, whose functioning is quite foreign to him. A similar degeneration is taking place amongst peasants: an American farmer in the Far West is today only a kind of subordinate engine driver. Also among us in Europe it becomes every day more impossible for a peasant to exist, for agriculture must be carried out in "large units"—the peasant consequently becomes increasingly like an industrial worker. His understanding dries up; there is no longer an interaction between his spirit and surrounding Nature.[65] Chamberlain's nostalgia for a pre-industrial way of life that he expressed so strongly in his Bosnia articles earned him ridicule, as many believed that he had an absurdly idealized and romanticized view of the rural life that he never experienced first-hand.[67] In 1893, after receiving a letter from Cosima Wagner telling him that he had to read Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, Chamberlain, who was fluent in French, duly complied with her request.[68] Chamberlain accepted Gobineau's belief in an Aryan master-race, but rejected his pessimism, writing that Gobineau's philosophy was "the grave of every attempt to deal practically with the race question and left only one honorable solution, that we at once put a bullet through our heads".[69] Chamberlain's time in Vienna shaped his anti-Semitism and Pan-Germanism. Despite living in Vienna from 1889 to 1909, when he moved to Bayreuth, Chamberlain had nothing but contempt for the multi-ethnic, multi-religious Habsburg empire, taking the viewpoint that the best thing that could happen to the Austrian empire would be for it to be annexed by Germany to end the Völkerchaos (chaos of the peoples).[70] Vienna had a large Jewish population (until 1938, Vienna was about 10% Jewish), and Chamberlain's time in Vienna may have been the first time in his life when he actually encountered Jews. Chamberlain's letters from Vienna constantly complain about how he was having to meet and deal with Jews, every one of whom he detested.[71] In 1894 after visiting a spa, Chamberlain wrote: "Unfortunately like everything else ... it has fallen into the hands of the Jews, which includes two consequences: every individual is bled to the utmost and systematically, and there is neither order nor cleanliness."[72] In 1895, he wrote: However, we shall have to move soon anyway, for our house having been sold to a Jew ... it will soon be impossible for decent people to live in it ... Already the house being almost quite full of Jews, we have to live in a state of continual warfare with the vermin which is a constant and invariable follower of this chosen people even in the most well-to-do classes.[72] In another letter of 1895, Chamberlain wrote he was still influenced by French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's critique of the Jews as mindlessly materialistic, writing that Proudhon was "one of the most acute minds of the century" and "I find many points of contact between the Wagner-Schiller mode of thought and the anarchism of Proudhon."[73] At the same time, Chamberlain's marriage to Anna began to fall apart, as his wife was frequently sick and though she assisted her husband with his writings, he did not find her very intellectually stimulating.[74] Chamberlain started to complain more and more that his wife's frequent illnesses forced him to tend to her and were holding back his career.[75] Though Chamberlain consistently remained supportive of German imperialism, he frequently expressed hostile views towards the British Empire; Chamberlain viewed Britain as world's most frequent aggressor, a view he expressed more vehemently at the tail end of the 19th century.[22] In 1895, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt about the Hamidian massacres in the Ottoman Empire during 1894–96: The Armenian insurrection [of 1894] with the inevitable retaliation of massacres and persecution (of course enormously exaggerated by those greatest liars in creation, backed by their worthy friends the English journalists) was all got up at the precise moment when English politics required a "diversion".[22] In 1896, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt: The English press is the most insufferably arrogant, generally ignorant, the most passionately one-sided and narrow-minded in its judgments that I know; it is the universal bully, always laying down the law for everybody, always speaking as if it were umpire of the universe, always abusing everybody all round and putting party spirit in all its judgments, envenoming thus the most peaceful discussions. It is this and this only which has made England hated all the world over. During the whole year 1895, I never opened an English newspaper without finding War predicated or threatened—No other nation in the world has wanted war or done anything but pray for peace—England alone, the world's bully, has been stirring it up on all sides.[76] During the 1890s, Chamberlain was an outspoken critic of British policies in South Africa, writing to his uncle in 1898: We are the heathen nation and race par excellence. War, conquest, commerce, money and above all an eternal readiness to knock every man down who stands in our way. And the only thing thoroughly distasteful to me in England and Englishmen generally, and English politics in particular, is this eternal coquetting with a religion to which every one of their feelings and opinions and acts is in direct contradiction. — Quoted in Field[77] At the time of the Second Boer War, Chamberlain privately expressed support for the cause of the Boers, although he also expressed regret over "white men" fighting each other at a time when Chamberlain believed that white supremacy around the world was being threatened by the alleged "Yellow Peril".[78] In July 1900, Chamberlain wrote to his aunt: One thing I can clearly see, that is, that it is criminal for Englishmen and Dutchmen to go on murdering each other for all sorts of sophisticated reasons, while the Great Yellow Danger overshadows us white men and threatens destruction … The fact that a tiny nation of peasants absolutely untrained in the conduct of war, has been able to keep the whole united empire at bay for months, and has only been overcome—and has it been overcome?—by sending out an army superior in number to the whole population including women and children, has lowered respect for England beyond anything you can imagine on your side of the water, and will certainly not remain lost on the minds of those countless millions who have hitherto been subdued by our prestige only.[78] Chamberlain seized upon the fact that some of the Randlords were Jewish to argue in his letters to Cosima Wagner that the war was a case of Anglo-Jewish aggression against the Germanic Afrikaners.[79] Wagner wrote back to Chamberlain: "This extermination of one of the most excellent Germanic races is so horrible that I know of nothing I have experienced which is comparable to it."[78] As a leading Wagnerite in Vienna, Chamberlain befriended a number of other prominent Wagnerites, such as Prince Hohenhohe-Langenburg, Ludwig Schemann, Georg Meurer, and Baron Christian von Ehrenfels.[80] The most important friendship that Chamberlain made during his time in Vienna was with German Ambassador to Austria-Hungary, Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg, who shared Chamberlain's love of Wagnerian music. Besides being a passionate Wagnerite, Eulenburg was also an anti-Semite, an Anglophobe and a convinced enemy of democracy who found much to admire in Chamberlain's anti-Semitic, anti-British and anti-democratic writings.[81] |
ウィーン時代 1891年9月、チェンバレンはジャーナリストとしてボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナを訪れた[63]。1878年、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナのオスマン帝国領 はオーストリア・ハンガリーによって占領されており、両州は1908年まで名目上オスマン帝国のままだったが、実際には1878年からオーストリア帝国の 一部であった。ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナは公式にはまだオスマン帝国の一部であったため、両州はオーストリア帝国議会やハンガリー国会に代表されず、実質 的にはオーストリア＝ハンガリーの植民地であった。チェンバレンはオーストリア政府から依頼を受け、ジュネーブの新聞にボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナを植民地 支配していることを誇示するプロパガンダを執筆した。ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナに関するチェンバレンの記事は、彼が民主主義よりも独裁をますます好むよう になっていることを示しており、チェンバレンはボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナにおける全く非民主的な支配についてオーストリアを賞賛していた[64]。チェン バレンはボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナで見たものは、ワーグナーの独言「絶対君主-自由民衆！」を完全に示すものである、と書いている[64]。 「チェンバレンは、ボスニアの人々は民主的な「議会制」のような惨状と混乱を持たず、代わりに理想主義的で賢明な独裁者によって支配され、彼らのために最 善であったと宣言している[64]。 [チェンバレンのボスニア関連記事で同様に重要だったのは、チェンバレンが近代産業と都市社会に生きる腐敗した人間として見たものと対照的に、小作人とし て土地に生きる「自然人」を賞賛したことである[65]。チェンバレンがボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナを訪れた時、地方はほとんど近代化に触れておらず、ほと んどの場合ボスニア人は中世に彼らの先祖がしてきたように生活し続けていた。チェンバレンは、自分の見たものに魅了され、その訪問の目的がオーストリアの 支配を美化することであったことをひとまず忘れ、オーストリアが推進する「西洋化」がボスニアの伝統的な生活様式を破壊することを強く悲しむ記事を書いた [66]。チェンバレンは、ボスニアの一般市民について次のように書いている。 [ボスニアの農民は）家を建て、靴を作り、耕すなどし、女は物を織り、染め、料理をする。我々がこの善良な人々を文明化し、彼らの美しい衣装を奪って博物 館に珍品として保存し、完璧で原始的な彼らの民族産業を台無しにし、我々との接触によって彼らの態度の単純さを破壊したとき、ボスニアはもはや我々にとっ て興味深い存在ではなくなるだろう[65]」。 19世紀の驚異的な科学技術の進歩に対するチェンバレンの畏敬と誇りは、人々が自然と調和して土地に住んでいた、より単純で、より良く、より純粋な時代と 彼が見たものに対する極めて強いノスタルジアで常に和らいでいた[65]。 [チェンバレンは常に中世を理想とするロマンチックな保守主義者であり、産業革命によってもたらされた変化には全くなじめなかった[65]。ボスニアで は、彼の牧歌的理想を象徴する古代の生活のリズムで動いている本質的に中世の社会を見たのである。数年後にボスニアを回想して、チェンバレンはこう書いて いる。 人生のすべてを自分で行い、すべてを自分で作り出さなければならない自然人の精神は、人生のすべてを一つの物体の製造に費やす工業労働者の精神よりも、明 らかに普遍的で調和的に発展している...それも、彼にとってはまったく異質の機能をもつ複雑な機械の助けを借りてだけである。同じような退化が農民の間 でも起こっている。極西部のアメリカの農民は、今日では、一種の従属的なエンジン運転手でしかない。ヨーロッパでも、農業は「大きな単位」で行われなけれ ばならないので、農民が存在することは日ごとに不可能になっている。彼の理解は枯渇し、彼の精神と周囲の自然との間の相互作用はもはや存在しない [65]。 チェンバレンがボスニアの記事で強く表現していた産業革命以前の生活様式への郷愁は、彼が直接経験したことのない田舎の生活に対して不条理に理想化され、ロマンチックな見解を持っていると多くの人が信じていたため、彼を嘲笑することになった[67]。 1893年、コジマ・ワグナーからゴビノーのEssai sur l'inégalité des races humainesを読むようにとの手紙を受け取った後、フランス語に堪能であったチェンバレンは彼女の要求にきちんと応じている[68]。 [チェンバレンは、アーリア人の主人種に対するゴビノーの信念を受け入れたが、彼の悲観論を拒否し、ゴビノーの哲学は「人種問題に実際的に対処しようとす るあらゆる試みの墓穴であり、ただ一つ名誉ある解決策、即刻頭から弾丸をぶち込むということしか残さない」と書いている[69]。チェンバレンのウィーン での時間は彼の反ユダヤ主義やパンガーミニズムを形成していた。1889年からバイロイトに移る1909年までウィーンに住んでいたにもかかわらず、チェ ンバレンは多民族・多宗教のハプスブルク帝国を軽蔑し、オーストリア帝国に起こる最善のことは、ドイツに併合されて民族の混乱（Völkerchaos） を終わらせることだという視点を持っていた[70] ウィーンは多くのユダヤ人の人口を持っており（1938年までウィーンは約10％のユダヤ人）、チェンバレンのウィーン時代は彼が人生で初めて実際にユダ ヤ人と遭遇した時期だったかもしれない。チェンバレンのウィーンからの手紙には、彼が嫌悪するユダヤ人に一人残らず会い、対処しなければならないことが常 に訴えられている[71]。 1894年に温泉を訪れたチェンバレンは、「残念ながら他のすべてのものと同様に...それはユダヤ人の手に落ちており、二つの結果を含む：すべての個人 が最大かつ組織的に血を流しており、そこには秩序も清潔もない」と書いている[72]。 1895年に彼は書いている。 しかし、私たちはいずれにせよすぐに引っ越さなければならない。私たちの家はユダヤ人に売られてしまったので...まともな人間が住むことはすぐに不可能 になるだろう...。すでにこの家はほとんどユダヤ人でいっぱいで、私たちは、最も裕福な階級においてさえ、この選ばれた人々の不変の従者である害虫との 絶え間ない戦いの中で暮らさなければならない[72]」と書いている。 1895年の別の手紙の中で、チェンバレンはユダヤ人を心ない物質主義者として批判したフランスの無政府主義者ピエール＝ジョセフ・プルードンの影響をま だ受けていると書いており、プルードンは「今世紀で最も鋭い精神の持ち主のひとり」であり「私はワーグナー＝シラーの思考様式とプルードンの無政府主義の 間に多くの接触点を見出す」と書いている[73]。 「73]同時に、チェンバレンとアンナの結婚は、妻が頻繁に病気になり、彼女は夫の著作を助けたが、彼は彼女にあまり知的な刺激を感じなかったので、崩壊 し始めた[74]。 チェンバレンは、妻の頻繁な病気のために看病を強いられ、彼のキャリアを妨げているとますます訴えるようになった[75]。 チェンバレンは一貫してドイツ帝国主義を支持していたが、大英帝国に対してはしばしば敵対的な見解を示していた。 1895年、チェンバレンは1894年から96年にかけてオスマン帝国内で起こったハミディア人の虐殺について叔母に手紙を書いた[22]。 アルメニアの暴動（1894年）は、虐殺と迫害という避けられない報復（もちろん、立派な友人であるイギリスのジャーナリストに支えられた、創造物におけ る最大の嘘つきたちによって非常に誇張されている）を伴って、イギリスの政治が「陽動」を必要とする正確な瞬間にすべて立ち上げられた[22]。 1896年、チェンバレンは叔母にこう書いている。 イギリスの報道機関は、私が知る限り、最も我慢できないほど傲慢で、概して無知で、最も情熱的に一方的で偏狭な判断をしている。常にみんなのために法律を 定め、まるで宇宙の審判者のように話し、常にあらゆる人を罵り、すべての判断に当事者意識を持ち、最も平和な議論を台無しにしている万能選手なのだ。イギ リスが世界中で嫌われるようになったのは、この点だけなのです。1895年の1年間、私はイギリスの新聞を開くと、戦争が予言されていたり、脅かされてい たりするのを目にすることはなかった-世界の他のどの国も戦争を望まず、平和を祈る以外のことはしなかった-世界のいじめっ子であるイギリスだけが、あら ゆる方面で戦争をかき立ててきたのである[76]。 1890年代、チェンバレンは南アフリカにおけるイギリスの政策を率直に批判し、1898年に叔父に宛ててこう書いている。 我々は異教徒の国であり、卓越した人種である。戦争、征服、商業、貨幣、そしてなによりも、われわれの道を阻むすべての人間を打ちのめす永遠の覚悟がある のだ。そして、イギリスとイギリス人一般、特にイギリスの政治において、私にとって徹底的に嫌なことは、彼らの感情、意見、行動のすべてが真っ向から対立 している宗教と永遠に戯れ続けることである。 - フィールド』から引用[77]。 第二次ボーア戦争のとき、チェンバレンは私的にボーア人の大義への支持を表明したが、チェンバレンは世界中の白人優位が「黄禍」と言われるものによって脅 かされていると考えていた時期に「白人」が互いに戦うことに対しても後悔を表明した[78]。 1900年7月にチェンバレンはおばに手紙を出している。 私がはっきりと分かることは、イギリス人とオランダ人があらゆる種類の洗練された理由でお互いを殺し続けることは犯罪であり、一方、大黄色の危険は我々白 人の影を落とし、破壊を脅かしているということだ...戦争遂行について全く訓練を受けていない農民の小国が、数ヶ月にわたって統一帝国全体を抑えること ができたという事実、そしてそれを克服できたというのは、ただ一度、戦力的に優れた軍隊を送り出すことによってだけだということだ...私は、このような 事実が分かっているのである。 -そして、これまで我が国の威信によってのみ服従してきた無数の百万人の人々の心には、必ずや 忘れ去られることはないだろう[78]。 チェンバレンはランドロードの一部がユダヤ人であることを利用して、コジマ・ワグナーへの手紙の中で、この戦争はゲルマン系アフリカーナに対するイギリ ス・ユダヤ人の侵略事件だと主張した[79]。 ワグナーはチェンバレンに返事を書いている。「最も優れたゲルマン民族の1つであるこの絶滅は、私が経験した中でこれに匹敵するものを知らないほど恐ろし いものです」[78]。 チェンバレンはウィーンの代表的なワーグナー派として、ホーエンホーエ＝ランゲンブルク公、ルートヴィヒ・シェーマン、ゲオルク・マイラー、クリスティア ン・フォン・エレンフェルス男爵など多くの著名なワーグナー派と親しくなった[80]。 ウィーン滞在中にできた最も重要な友情は、チェンバレンのワーグナー音楽への愛を共有したドイツ大使、フィリップ・オイレンブルク公とであった。オイレン ブルクは熱烈なワーグナーファンであっただけでなく、反ユダヤ主義者、英国嫌い、民主主義の確信犯でもあり、チェンバレンの反ユダヤ、反英、反民主主義の 著作には賞賛すべきものが多く見出された[81]。 |
| Die Grundlagen (The Foundations) In February 1896, the Munich publisher Hugo Bruckmann, a leading völkisch activist who was later to publish Mein Kampf commissioned Chamberlain to write a book that was intended to summarize all of the achievements of the 19th century.[82] In October 1899 Chamberlain published his most famous work, Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, in German. The Foundations is a pseudo-scientific "racial history" of humanity from the emergence of the first civilizations in the ancient Near East to the year 1800. It argues that all of the "foundations" of the great 19th century, which saw huge economic, scientific and technological advances in the West, were the work of the "Aryan race".[83] Die Grundlagen was only the first volume of an intended three-volume history of the West with the second and third volumes taking up the story of the West in the 19th century and the looming war for world domination in the coming 20th century between the Aryans on one side vs. the Jews, blacks and Asians on the other side.[84] Chamberlain never wrote the third volume, much to the intense annoyance of Cosima Wagner, who was upset that Die Grundlagen stopped in 1800 before Wagner was born, and thus omitted her husband.[85] The book argued that Western civilisation is deeply marked by the influence of Teutonic peoples. |
ディ・グルンドラーゲン（基礎編） 1896年2月、後に『我が闘争』を出版することになるヴェルキッシュ派の有力活動家であるミュンヘンの出版社フーゴー・ブルックマンが、19世紀のすべての業績を要約することを目的とした本の執筆をチェンバレンに依頼した[82]。 1899年10月、チェンバレンは彼の最も有名な著作『Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts』をドイツ語で出版した。『基礎』は、古代近東における最初の文明の出現から1800年までの人類の疑似科学的な「人種史」であ る。Die Grundlagen』は意図された3巻の西洋史の第1巻に過ぎず、第2巻と第3巻は19世紀の西洋の物語と、来る20世紀における一方のアーリア人対他 方のユダヤ人、黒人、アジア人の間の世界支配を巡る迫り来る戦争を取り上げるものであった[83]。 チェンバレンは第3巻を書くことはなく、コジマ・ワーグナーが激しく苛立ち、ワーグナーが生まれる前の1800年に『Die Grundlagen』が停止し、そのため彼女の夫が省かれたことに腹を立てた[85]。 この本は、西洋文明がチュートン民族の影響によって深く特徴づけられていると論じた。 |
| Peoples defined as Aryans Chamberlain grouped all European peoples – not just Germans, but Celts, Slavs, Greeks, and Latins – into the "Aryan race", a race built on the ancient Proto-Indo-European culture. In fact, he even included the Berber people of North Africa in the Aryan race: "The noble Moor of Spain is anything but a pure Arab of the desert, he is half a Berber (from the Aryan family) and his veins are so full of Gothic blood that even at the present day noble inhabitants of Morocco can trace their descent back to Teutonic ancestors."[86] At the helm of the Aryan race, and, indeed, all races, according to Chamberlain, were the Germanic or Teutonic peoples, who had best preserved the Aryan blood.[87] Chamberlain used the terms Aryan, Indo-European and Indo-Germanic interchangeably, but he went out of his way to emphasise that purest Aryans were to be found in Central Europe and that in both France and Russia miscegenation had diluted the Aryan blood.[88] The Russians in particular had become a semi-Asian people on the account of the rule of the Golden Horde. Much of Chamberlain's theory about the superiority of the Aryan race was taken from the writings of the French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau, but there was a crucial difference in that Gobineau had used the Aryan race theory as a way of dividing society between an Aryan nobility vs. racially inferior commoners whereas Chamberlain used the Aryan racial theory as a way of uniting society around its supposed common racial origins.[89] |
アーリア人と定義された民族 チェンバレンは、ドイツ人だけではなく、ケルト人、スラブ人、ギリシャ人、ラテン人などすべてのヨーロッパ民族を、古代の原インド・ヨーロッパ文化の上に 築かれた「アーリア人種」に分類しました。そして、北アフリカのベルベル人さえもアーリア人種に含めたのである。「スペインの高貴なムーア人は砂漠の純粋 なアラブ人ではなく、半分がベルベル人（アーリア人の家系）であり、その血管はゴート人の血に満ちていて、現在でもモロッコの高貴な住民はチュートン人の 祖先にその系譜を遡ることができる」[86]と述べている。 チェンバレンによれば、アーリア人種の、いや、すべての人種の舵取りは、アーリア人の血を最もよく保存していたゲルマン人またはチュートン人であった。 [チェンバレンはアーリア人、インド・ヨーロッパ人、インド・ゲルマン人という用語を使い分けていたが、最も純粋なアーリア人は中央ヨーロッパにおり、フ ランスとロシアでは混血によってアーリア人の血が希釈されたとわざわざ強調した[88]。 特にロシア人は黄金ホルドの支配によって半アジア人になっていた。アーリア人種の優位性に関するチェンバレンの理論の多くはフランスの貴族であるアル チュール・ド・ゴビノーの著作から引用されていたが、ゴビノーがアーリア人種理論をアーリア貴族と人種的に劣る平民との間で社会を分割する方法として使用 していたのに対し、チェンバレンはアーリアン人種理論を共通の人種的起源とされるものを中心として社会を統合する方法として使用していたという決定的な違 いがあった[89]。 |
| Aryan race virtues Everything that Chamberlain viewed as good in the world was ascribed to the Aryans.[90] For an example, in The Foundations Chamberlain explained at considerable length that Jesus Christ could not possibly be a Jew, and very strongly implied that Christ was an Aryan.[91] Chamberlain's tendency to see everything good as the work of the Aryans allowed him to claim whoever he approved of for the Aryan race, which at least was part of the appeal of the book in Germany when it was published in 1899. Chamberlain claimed all of the glories and achievements of ancient Greece and Rome as due entirely to Aryan blood.[83] Chamberlain wrote that ancient Greece was a "lost ideal" of beautiful thought and art that the modern Germans were best placed to recover if only the German people could embrace Wagner.[92] Chamberlain praised Rome for its militarism, civic values, patriotism, respect for the law and reverence for the family as offering the best sort of Aryan government.[93] Reflecting his opposition to feminism, Chamberlain lamented how modern women were not like the submissive women of ancient Rome whom he claimed were most happy in obeying the wills of their husbands.[93] Chamberlain asserted that Aryans and Aryans alone are the only people in the entire world capable of creating beautiful art and thinking great thoughts, so he claimed all of the great artists, writers and thinkers of the West such as Homer, Dante, Giotto, Donatello, Albrecht Dürer, Leonardo da Vinci, Martin Luther, William Shakespeare, Rembrandt, Ludwig van Beethoven, Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe as part of one long glorious tradition of beautiful Aryan art and thought, which Chamberlain planned to have culminate with the life-changing, racially regenerating music of Richard Wagner in the 19th century.[94] As the British historian George Peabody Gooch wrote, here was "a glittering vision of mind and muscle, of large scale organization, of intoxicating self-confidence, of metallic brilliancy, such as Europe has never seen".[95] The antithesis of the heroic Aryan race with its vital, creative life-improving qualities was the "Jewish race", whom Chamberlain presented as the inverse of the Aryan.[96] Every positive quality the Aryans had, the Jews had the exact opposing negative quality.[97] The American historian Geoffrey Field wrote: To each negative "Semitic" trait Chamberlain counter-posed a Teutonic virtue. Kantian moral freedom took the place of political liberty and egalitarianism. Irresponsible Jewish capitalism was sharply distinguished from the vague ideal of Teutonic industrialism, a romantic vision of an advanced technological society which had somehow managed to retain the Volksgemeinschaft, cooperation and hierarchy of the medieval guilds. The alternative to Marxism was "ethical socialism", such as that described by Thomas More, "one of the most exquisite scholars ever produced by a Teutonic people, of an absolutely aristocratic, refined nature". In the rigidly elitist, disciplined society of Utopia with its strong aura of Christian humanism, Chamberlain found an approximation of his own nostalgic, communal ideal. "The gulf separating More from Marx," he wrote, "is not the progress of time, but the contrast between Teuton and Jew."[98] |
アーリア人種の美徳 例えば、チェンバレンは『基礎』において、イエス・キリストがユダヤ人であるはずがないことをかなり長く説明し、キリストがアーリア人であることを非常に強くほのめかしていた[91]。 チェンバレンはすべての良いものをアーリア人の仕業とみなす傾向があったため、自分が認めた者は誰でもアーリア人種であると主張することができ、少なくと も1899年に出版されたドイツではこの本の魅力の一部であった。チェンバレンは古代ギリシャとローマのすべての栄光と成果をアーリア人の血によるものと 主張していた[83]。チェンバレンは古代ギリシャが美しい思想と芸術の「失われた理想」であり、ドイツ国民がワーグナーを受け入れさえすれば現代のドイ ツ人は回復できる最良の立場にあると書いていた[92]。 チェンバレンは、ローマをその軍国主義、市民的価値観、愛国心、法の尊重、家族への敬意から、最良のアーリア人政府を提供すると賞賛した[93]。フェミ ニズムに対する彼の反対を反映して、チェンバレンは現代の女性が、夫の意志に従うことが最も幸せであると主張した古代ローマの従順な女性とはいかに違うか を嘆いている[93]。 チェンバレンは、美しい芸術を創造し、偉大な思考をすることができるのは全世界でアーリア人とアーリア人だけであると主張し、ホーマー、ダンテ、ジョッ ト、ドナテッロ、アルブレヒトデューラー、レオナルドダビンチ、マーティンルーター、ウィリアムシェイクスピア、レンブラント、マドモアゼル阮玲など西洋 の偉大な芸術家や作家や思想家はすべて、そのような人間だと主張している[93][93][93]。チェンバレンは、19世紀にリヒャルト・ワーグナーの 人生を変え、人種を再生させる音楽で最高潮に達するように計画した、美しいアーリア人の芸術と思想の長い輝かしい伝統の一部として、ウィリアム・シェーク スピア、レンブラント、ルードヴィヒ・ファン・ベートーベン、イマニエル・カント、ヨハン・ヴォルフガング・フォン・ゲーテのような西洋の芸術家や思想家 を取り込んでいた。 [94] イギリスの歴史家であるジョージ・ピーボディ・グーチが書いたように、ここには「ヨーロッパが見たこともないような、心と筋肉、大規模な組織、酔わせる自 信、金属の輝きのきらめくビジョン」があったのである[95]。 生命力に溢れ、創造的な生活を向上させる資質を持つ英雄的なアーリア人種のアンチテーゼは、チェンバレンがアーリア人の逆として提示した「ユダヤ人」だっ た[96]。 アーリア人が持つすべての正の性質は、ユダヤ人が正反対の負の性質を持っていた。 アメリカの歴史家ジェフリー・フィールドは次のように書いている[97]。 チェンバレンは否定的な「セム人」の特質に対して、チュートリアルの美徳を対置していた。カントンの道徳的自由は政治的自由と平等主義に取って代わられ た。無責任なユダヤ資本主義は、中世のギルドのフォルクスゲマインシャフト、協力、階層性をどうにか保っている先進技術社会のロマンチックなビジョンであ るチュートン工業主義のあいまいな理想とは明確に区別された。マルクス主義に代わるものは、トマス・モアが「チュートン民族がこれまでに生み出した最も精 巧な学者の一人で、絶対的に貴族的で洗練された性質を持つ」と評したような「倫理的社会主義」であった。キリスト教的ヒューマニズムの強いオーラを持つ ユートピアの厳格なエリート主義、規律社会の中に、チェンバレンは自らのノスタルジックな共同体的理想に近いものを見いだしたのである。「モアとマルクス を隔てる溝は、時間の進歩ではなく、チュートンとユダヤ人の間のコントラストである」と彼は書いている[98]。 |
| The Jewish wars claim Chamberlain announced in The Foundations that "all the wars" in history were "so peculiarly connected with Jewish financial operations".[99] Chamberlain warned that the aim of the Jew was "to put his foot upon the neck of all nations of the world and be Lord and possessor of the whole earth".[100] As part of their plans to destroy Aryan civilization, Chamberlain wrote: "Consider, with what mastery they use the law of blood to extend their power."[100] Chamberlain wrote that Jewish women were encouraged to marry Gentiles while Jewish men were not, so the male line "remained spotless ... thousands of side-branches are cut off and employed to infect Indo-Europeans with Jewish blood."[100] In his account of the Punic wars between "Aryan Rome" and "Semitic Carthage", Chamberlain praised the Romans for their total destruction of Carthage in 146 BC at the end of the Third Punic War as an example of how Aryans should deal with Semites.[93] Later, Chamberlain argued that the Romans had become too tolerant of Semites like the Jews, and this was the cause of the downfall of the Roman empire.[93] Chamberlain argued that it was due to miscegenation that the Jews had caused the Aryan Roman Empire to go into decline and collapse.[93] Chamberlain wrote that the "African half breed soldier emperor" Caracalla had granted Roman citizenship to all the subjects in the Empire regardless of race or religion in 212 AD, and as result of this, the Romans had freely mixed with Semitic and African peoples, leading Chamberlain to conclude: "Like a cataract the alien blood poured down into the depopulated city of Rome and soon the Romans ceased to exist."[93] As such, the destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic peoples was merely an act of liberation from the Völkerchaos ("Chaos of the Peoples") that the Roman empire had become.[101] |
ユダヤ人の戦争という主張 チェンバレンは『基礎』の中で、歴史上の「すべての戦争」は「ユダヤ人の金融活動と非常に特異な関係にある」と発表した[99]。 チェンバレンは、ユダヤ人の目的は「世界のすべての国の首に足をかけ、全地の主、所有者となること」だと警告していた[100]。 アーリア文明を破壊する彼らの計画の一部として、チェンバレンは「彼らがその権力を拡大するために血の法則をどのように使いこなしているかを考えてみよ う」と書いている[100]。チェンバレンは、ユダヤ人女性は異邦人と結婚するよう奨励されたがユダヤ人男性はそうではなかったので男性の系統は「汚れな きままであり...」と書いている。何千もの側枝が切り落とされ、インド・ヨーロッパ人をユダヤ人の血に感染させるために利用されている」[100]。 アーリア人のローマ」と「セム人のカルタゴ」の間のポエニ戦争についての記述では、チェンバレンはアーリア人がセム人にいかに対処すべきかという例とし て、第3ポエニ戦争末期の前146年にローマ人がカルタゴを完全に破壊したと賞賛している[93]。 その後、チェンバレンはローマ人がユダヤ人のようなセム人に対して寛容になりすぎたことが、ローマ帝国を崩壊させる原因となったと主張している[93]。 チェンバレンは、ユダヤ人がアーリア人のローマ帝国を衰退させ崩壊させたのは混血のためであると主張している。 チェンバレンは、「アフリカ系混血兵皇帝」カラカラが紀元212年に人種や宗教に関係なく帝国内のすべての臣民にローマ市民権を与えた結果、ローマ人はセ ム系やアフリカ系民族と自由に混血し、チェンバレンは次のように結論づけたと書いている[93]。「そのため、ゲルマン人による西ローマ帝国の破壊は、 ローマ帝国が陥った「民族のカオス」からの解放行為に過ぎなかったとする[101]。 |
| Theories of Jewish conspiracy Jewish race domination claim The ultimate aim of the Jew, according to Chamberlain, was to create a situation were "there would be in Europe only a single people of pure race, the Jews, all the rest would be a herd of pseudo-Hebraic mestizos, a people beyond all doubt degenerate physically, mentally and morally."[100] Catholicism a Jewish invention As part of their plans to destroy the Aryans, Chamberlain claimed that the Jews had founded the Roman Catholic Church, which only preached a "Judaized" Christianity that had nothing to do with the Christianity created by the Aryan Christ.[102] At least some historians have argued that The Foundations are actually more anti-Catholic than anti-Semitic, but this misses the point that the reason why Chamberlain attacked the Catholic Church so fiercely was because he believed the Papacy was controlled by the Jews.[102] Chamberlain claimed that in the 16th century the Aryan Germans under the leadership of Martin Luther had broken away from the corrupt influence of Rome, and so laid the foundations of a "Germanic Christianity".[103 |
ユダヤ人陰謀論 ユダヤ人による人種支配の主張 チェンバレンによれば、ユダヤ人の究極の目的は、「ヨーロッパには純粋な民族であるユダヤ人だけが存在し、それ以外はすべて疑似ヘブライ人のメスチソの群れとなり、肉体的にも精神的にも道徳的にも間違いなく退化した人々」という状況を作り出すことであった[100]。 カトリシズムはユダヤ人の発明 アーリア人を滅ぼす計画の一環として、チェンバレンは、ユダヤ人がローマ・カトリック教会を創設したと主張し、その教会はアーリア人のキリストが作ったキリスト教とは何の関係もない「ユダヤ化」したキリスト教を説いているだけであるとした[102]。 少なくとも一部の歴史家は、『建国』は実際には反ユダヤ的というよりも反カトリック的であると主張しているが、これはチェンバレンがカトリック教会を激しく攻撃した理由が、教皇庁がユダヤ人に支配されていると考えていたからであるという点を見落としている[102]。 チェンバレンは、16世紀にマルティン・ルターの指導の下でアーリア系ドイツ人がローマの腐敗した影響から脱却し、それによって「ゲルマン・キリスト教」の基礎が作られたと主張している[103]。 |
| Democracy a failed Jewish invention Chamberlain claimed that the natural and best form of government for Aryans was a dictatorship, and so he blamed the Jews for inventing democracy as part of their plans for destroying the Aryans.[99] In the same way, Chamberlain blamed capitalism – which he saw as a very destructive economic system – as something invented by the Jews to enrich themselves at the expense of the Aryans while at the same time crediting the Jews with inventing socialism with its message of universal human equality as a cunning Jewish stratagem to divert attention away from all the economic devastation wrought by Jewish financiers.[99] Jewish fault for Chinese lack of culture Chamberlain had a deep dislike of the Chinese, and in The Foundations he announced that Chinese civilization had been founded by the Jews because just like the Jews the Chinese had "... the total absence of all culture and the one-sided emphasizing of civilization".[104] For Chamberlain, this was more than sufficient proof that the Jews had created Chinese civilization.[citation needed] Jewish race – not religion The Franco-Israeli historian Saul Friedländer described The Foundations – with its theory of two "pure" races left in the world, namely the German and Jewish locked into a war for world domination which could only end with the complete victory of one over the other – as one of the key texts of "redemptive anti-semitism".[61] Because Chamberlain viewed Jews as a race, not a religion, Chamberlain argued the conversion of Jews was not a "solution" to the "Jewish Question", stating Jewish converts to Christianity were still Jews.[105] In taking this stance, Chamberlain was going beyond his hero Wagner. Dutch journalist Ian Buruma wrote: Wagner himself, like Luther, still believed that a Jew could, as he put it with his customary charm, "annihilate" his Jewishness by repudiating his ancestry, converting and worshiping at the shrine of Bayreuth. So in theory a Jew could be a German ... But to the mystical chauvinists, like Chamberlain, who took a tribal view of Germanness, even radical, Wagnerian assimilation could never be enough: the Jew was an alien virus to be purged from the national bloodstream. The more a Jew took on the habits and thoughts of his gentile compatriots, the more he was to be feared.[106] |
民主主義はユダヤ人の発明による失敗作 チェンバレンは、アーリア人にとって自然で最良の政府の形態は独裁であると主張し、アーリア人を滅ぼす計画の一環としてユダヤ人が民主主義を発明したと非 難した[99]。 [同じようにチェンバレンは、資本主義（彼は非常に破壊的な経済システムとみなしていた）を、アーリア人を犠牲にして自分たちを豊かにするためにユダヤ人 が発明したものと非難し、同時に、ユダヤ人金融業者がもたらしたすべての経済的破壊から注意をそらすための狡賢いユダヤ人の策略である普遍的人間平等の メッセージを持つ社会主義を発明したのは彼らだと信用したのである[99]。 中国人の文化の欠如はユダヤ人のせい チェンバレンは中国人を深く嫌っており、『基礎』において、中国人はユ ダヤ人と同じように「...あらゆる文化の完全な欠如と文明の一方的な強調」を持っていたので、中国文明はユダヤ人によって築かれたと発表した [104]。 チェンバレンにとって、これはユダヤ人が中国文明を作ったという十分すぎる証拠だった[引用者註:必要]。 ユダヤ人という人種 - 宗教ではない イスラエル人の歴史家ソール・フリードレンダーは、『創世記』について、世界に残された二つの「純粋な」人種、すなわちドイツ人とユダヤ人が世界支配のた めの戦争に巻き込まれ、一方が他方に完全に勝利することでしか終われないという理論をもって、「救済的反ユダヤ主義」の主要なテキストの一つであると述べ ている[61]。 [チェンバレンはユダヤ人を宗教ではなく人種として見ていたため、ユダヤ人のキリスト教への改宗は「ユダヤ人問題」の「解決策」にはならないと主張し、ユ ダヤ人のキリスト教への改宗者は依然としてユダヤ人であるとした[105]。この姿勢をとることによって、チェンバレンは彼の英雄ワーグナーの域を超えて いたのである。オランダのジャーナリスト、イアン・ブルマはこう書いている。 ワーグナー自身は、ルターと同様に、ユダヤ人は、彼がいつものように魅力的に言うように、先祖を否認し、改宗し、バイロイトの神社で礼拝することによっ て、自分のユダヤ人性を「消滅させる」ことができるとまだ信じていたのである。だから、理論的にはユダヤ人もドイツ人になれるのだ......」。しか し、チェンバレンのような神秘主義的な排外主義者にとっては、たとえワーグナー的な同化でも十分ではなく、ユダヤ人は国民の血流から排除されるべき外来ウ イルスであった。ユダヤ人が異邦人である同胞の習慣や思考を取り入れれば取り入れるほど、彼は恐れられ ることになる[106]。 |
| Leaving "the solution" to the reader Chamberlain did not advocate the extermination of Jews in The Foundations; indeed, despite his determination to blame all of the world's problems on the Jews, Chamberlain never proposed a solution to this perceived problem.[107] Instead, Chamberlain made the cryptic statement that after reading his book, his readers would know best about how to devise a "solution" to the "Jewish Question".[107] Friedländer has argued that if one were to seriously take up the theories of "redemptive anti-semitism" proposed in The Foundations, and push them to their logical conclusion, then inevitably one would reach the conclusion that genocide might be a perfectly acceptable "solution" to the "Jewish Question".[61] Friedländer argued that there is an implied genocidal logic to The Foundations as Chamberlain argued that Jews were a race apart from the rest of humanity; that evil was embedded within the genes of the Jews, and so the Jews were born evil and remained evil until they died, indeed a Jew could never stop being evil even if he or she wanted to; and that for these biological reasons alone, the Jews would never cease their endless attempts to destroy all that was good within the world.[61] |
解決策」を読者に委ねる チェンバレンは『基礎』においてユダヤ人の絶滅を提唱していない。実際、世界のすべての問題をユダヤ人のせいにしようと決意したにもかかわらず、チェンバ レンはこの認識された問題に対する解決策を提案しなかった[107]。その代わりに、「ユダヤ人問題」に対する「解決策」を考案する方法は本を読んだ後に 読者が最もよく知っているだろうという不可解な発言をしたのである[107]。 フリードレンダーは、『基礎』で提案された「救済的反ユダヤ主義」の理論を真剣に取り上げ、その論理的結論を押し進めるならば、必然的に大量虐殺が「ユダ ヤ人問題」に対する完全に許容できる「解決策」かもしれないという結論に到達すると論じている[61]。 [フリードレンダーは、チェンバレンが、ユダヤ人は他の人類とは異なる人種であり、悪はユダヤ人の遺伝子に組み込まれており、したがって、ユダヤ人は悪と して生まれ、死ぬまで悪であり続け、実際、ユダヤ人は悪であり続けようと思ってもやめられない、そして、これらの生物的理由のみによって、ユダヤ人は世界 の中の善をすべて破壊する果てしない試みを決してやめることはないと主張したことから、「基礎」には暗黙の大量虐殺論理が存在すると論じた[61]。 |
| Follow up book by Josef Remier Inspired by The Foundations, one völkisch writer, Josef Remier, published Ein Pangermanisches Deutschland ("A Pan-Germanic Germany") in 1905, which used The Foundations to advocate that Germany conquer the Russian Empire, after which special commissions of doctors, anthropologists and "breeding experts" were to divide the population into three categories; ethnic Germans, those capable of being "Germanized", and those incapable of "improvement", with all Slavs and Jews being included in the last category.[108] Field wrote that Remier's vision anticipated the "war of extermination" that was Operation Barbarossa in 1941 in "many horrifying aspects".[108] The Foundations sales, reviews and acceptance The Foundations sold well: eight editions and 60,000 copies within 10 years, 100,000 copies by the outbreak of World War I and 24 editions and more than a quarter of a million copies by 1938.[109] The success of The Foundations after it was published in October 1899 made Chamberlain into a celebrity intellectual.[110] The popularity of The Foundations was such that many Gymnasium (high school) teachers in the Protestant parts of Germany made Die Grundlagen required reading for their students.[111] One teacher remembered: "I myself read the whole book in one go when as a young Gymnasium teacher in Nürnberg it fell into my hands. And with a flushed face I put it aside full of excitement. I can picture the scene today [1927] and can reawaken the old feeling."[112] The book sold very well, but reviews in Germany were very mixed. Conservative and National Liberal newspapers gave generally friendly reviews to The Foundations.[113] Völkisch newspapers gave overwhelming positive reviews to The Foundations with many völkisch reviewers calling Die Grundlagen one of the greatest books ever written.[114] |
ヨーゼフ・レミアー著の続刊 『 基礎』に触発されたヴェルキッシュ派の作家であるヨーゼフ・レミエは、1905年に『Ein Pangermanisches Deutschland』（『汎ゲルマン的ドイツ』）を出版し、『基礎』を用いてドイツがロシア帝国を征服し、その後医師、人類学者、「育種専門家」によ る特別委員会によって、ドイツ民族、「ドイツ化」できる者、「改善」できない者の3種類に分け、すべてのスラヴ人とユダヤ人は最後のカテゴリに含まれると 提唱している[108]。 フィールドは、レミアのビジョンは「多くの恐ろしい側面」において、1941年のバルバロッサ作戦である「絶滅戦争」を予期していたと書いている[108]。 『 基礎』の売れ行き、評価、受容 10年以内に8版、6万部、第一次世界大戦の勃発までに10万部、1938年までに24版、25万部以上と、『 基礎』の売れ行きは好調だった[109]。 1899年10月に出版された『基礎』の成功はチェンバレンを有名な知識人にした[110]。『基礎』の人気は、ドイツのプロテスタント地域の多くのギムナジウム（高校）の教師が『ディ・グルントラーゲン』を生徒の必読書にするほどであった[111]。 ある教師はこう回想している。「私自身、ニュルンベルクの若いギムナジウムの教師としてこの本を手にしたとき、一度に全部読みました。そして、顔を紅潮さ せながら、興奮のあまり本を脇に置いた。私は今日（1927年）でもその光景を思い浮かべることができ、昔の気持ちを呼び起こすことができる」[112] この本は非常によく売れたが、ドイツでの評価は非常にまちまちであった。 保守派と国民自由党の新聞は『基礎』に対して概ね友好的な評価を与えていた[113]。 ヴェルキッシュ派の新聞は『基礎』に圧倒的な肯定的な評価を与え、多くのヴェルキッシュ派の評論家は『ディ・グルンドラーゲン』をこれまでに書かれた最も 素晴らしい本の一つと呼んでいる[114]。 |
| Discrimination of Jews following the book German universities were hotbeds of völkisch activity in the early 20th century, and The Foundations was extremely popular on university campuses with many university clubs using The Foundations as a reason to exclude Jewish students from joining.[115] Likewise, military schools were centers of völkisch thought in the early 20th century, and so The Foundations was very popular with officer cadets; though since neither the Navy nor the Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg armies accepted Jewish officer candidates, Die Grundlagen did not lead to Jews being excluded.[115] The only exceptions to the otherwise total exclusion of German Jews from the officer corps were the Bavarian and Saxon armies, which were prepared to accept Jews as reserve officers.[116] Liberal and Social Democratic newspapers gave the book extremely poor reviews with reviewers complaining of an irrational way of reasoning in The Foundations, noting that Chamberlain quoted the writings of Goethe out of context in order to give him views that he had not held, and that the entire book was full of an obsessive anti-Semitism which they found extremely off-putting.[117] Catholic and Protestant responses Because of Chamberlain's anti-Catholicism, Catholic newspapers all published very hostile reviews of The Foundations, though Catholic reviewers rarely faulted Die Grundlagen for its anti-Semitism.[118] Protestant völkisch newspapers gave The Foundations very good reviews, while more orthodox Protestant newspapers were disturbed by Chamberlain's call for a racialized Christianity.[119] One Protestant reviewer, Professor Baentsch of Jena, wrote that Chamberlain had systematically distorted the Book of Job, the Psalms, the Prophets, and other books of the Old Testament, leading him to conclude that it was no surprise that Chamberlain found so little common ground between Christianity and Judaism given the way he had misrepresented the entire Old Testament.[120] |
同書を受けたユダヤ人差別 ドイツの大学は20世紀初頭のヴェルキッシュの温床であり、『 基礎』は大学のキャンパスで非常に人気があり、多くの大学のクラブがユダヤ人学生を入会から排除する理由として『 基礎』を用いていた[115]。 同様に、軍学校は20世紀初頭のヴェルキッシュ思想の中心地であったため、『建国』は士官候補生に非常に人気があった。しかし、海軍もプロイセン軍、バイ エルン軍、ザクセン軍、ヴュルテンベルク軍のいずれもユダヤ人の士官候補を受け入れていなかったので、『建国』はユダヤ人を排除することにはつながらな かった[115]。ドイツ人ユダヤ人を士官部隊から完全に排除する唯一の例外は、ユダヤ人を予備軍として受け入れる準備をしていたバイエルンとザクセン軍 の軍隊であった[116]。 [116] 自由党と社会民主党の新聞はこの本に極めて悪い評価を下しており、批評家は『基礎』における非合理的な推論方法に不満を持ち、チェンバレンが持っていない 見解を与えるためにゲーテの著作を文脈から引用していると指摘し、本全体が非常に不快に思われる執着した反ユダヤ主義でいっぱいであることを指摘していた [117]。 カトリックとプロテスタントの反応 チェンバレンの反カトリック主義のために、カトリックの新聞はすべて『基礎』の非常に敵対的なレビューを掲載していたが、カトリックの批評家は『ディ・グルントラーゲン』をその反ユダヤ主義についてほとんど非難していない[118]。 プロテスタントのヴェルキッシュの新聞は『基礎』を非常に良い評価を与えていたが、より正統的なプロテスタントの新聞はチェンバレンが人種的なキリスト教を呼びかけていることに不安を抱いていた[119]。 プロテスタントの批評家の一人であるイエナのベンシュ教授は、チェンバレンがヨブ記、詩篇、預言書、その他の旧約聖書の書物を体系的に歪めていると書き、 彼が旧約聖書全体を誤って伝えていたことを考えると、チェンバレンがキリスト教とユダヤ教の間にほとんど共通点を見出せなかったとしても不思議ではないと 結論付けるに至った[120]。 |
| Jewish response One German Jewish reviewer, the Berlin banker Heinrich Meyer-Cohn, wrote that The Foundations was "bad, unclear, and illogical in its train of thought and unpleasing in style, full of false modesty and genuine superciliousness, full of real ignorance and false affectation of learning".[121] German Jewish groups like the Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens and the Verein zur Abwehr des Antisemitismus repeatedly issued statements in the early 20th century that the popularity of The Foundations was a major source of concern for them, noting that Die Grundlagen had caused a major increase in anti-Semitism with many German Jews now finding themselves the objects of harassment and sometimes violence.[122] The German Jewish journalist Moritz Goldstein wrote in 1912 that he had become a Zionist because he believed there was no future for Jews in Germany, and one of the reasons for that belief was: "Chamberlain believes what he says and for that very reason his distortions shock me. And thousands more believe as he does for the book goes one edition after another and I would still like to know if many Germanic types, whose self-image is pleasantly indulged by this theory, are able to remain critical enough to question its countless injustices and errors?"[120] Goldstein added that the case of Chamberlain showed his views as typical of those of "the best spirits, clever, truth-loving men who, however, as soon they speak of Jews, fall into a blind, almost rabid hatred".[120] |
ユダヤ人の反応 ドイツのユダヤ人の批評家の一人であるベルリンの銀行家ハインリッヒ・マイヤーコーンは、『基礎』は「悪く、不明瞭で、思考の流れが非論理的で、文体が不 愉快で、偽りの謙虚さと本物の上から目線に満ち、本物の無知と偽りの学識の気取りに満ちている」と書いている[121]。 Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen GlaubensやVerein zur Abwehr des Antisemitismusといったドイツのユダヤ人団体は20世紀初頭に『基礎』の人気は彼らにとって大きな懸念材料であると繰り返し声明を出し、『基礎』は多くのドイツのユダヤ人が現在嫌がらせや時には暴力の対象になっていると反ユダヤ主義の大きな増大を引き起こしたと指摘してい る[122]。 ドイツのユダヤ人ジャーナリストであるモーリッツ・ゴールドシュタインは、1912年に、ドイツにユダヤ人の未来はないと信じてシオニストになったが、そ の理由の一つとして次のように書いている。「チェンバレンは自分の言うことを信じており、それゆえに彼の歪曲は私にショックを与える。そして、何千人もの 人々が彼と同じように信じており、この本は次々と版を重ね、この理論によって自己イメージを快く甘受している多くのゲルマン人が、その無数の不正義と誤り を疑うだけの批判力を持ち続けられるのか、私は今でも知りたい」[120]。 ゴールドスタインは、チェンバレンのケースは彼の見解が「最高の精神、賢さ、真実を愛する男たちが、しかし、ユダヤ人のことを話すやいなや、盲目的でほとんど狂暴な憎悪に陥る」典型であることを示していると付け加えている[120]。 |
| Evangelist of race Visit to England and attack on its Jews In 1900, for the first time in decades, Chamberlain visited Britain, a place he disparagingly called "the land of the Boer-eaters".[123] Writing to Cosima Wagner from London, Chamberlain stated sadly that his Britain, the Britain of aristocratic rule, hard work and manly courage, the romanticized "Merry Old England" of his imagination was no more; it had been replaced by what Chamberlain saw as a materialist, soulless society, atomized into individuals with no sense of the collective purpose and entirely dominated by greed.[124] Chamberlain wrote that since the 1880s Britain had "chosen the service of Mammon", for which he blamed the Jews, writing to Wagner: "This is the result, when one has studied politics with a Jew for a quarter century."[123] The "Jew" Chamberlain was referring to was Disraeli, whom Chamberlain had always hated with a passion.[123] Chamberlain concluded: "My old England was nowhere recognizable."[123] Chamberlain declared in his letter that all British businessmen were now dishonest; the middle class, smug and stupid; small farmers and shops were no longer able to compete with Jewish-owned big business; and the monarchy was "irretrievably weakened" by social change.[123] In short, for Chamberlain Britain was no longer his country. German superiority to rule the world In the summer of 1900, Chamberlain wrote an essay in the magazine Jugend, where he declared that: "The reign of Wilhelm II has the character of the dawning of a new day."[125] Chamberlain went on to write that Wilhelm was "in fact the first German Kaiser" who knew his mission was to "ennoble" the world by spreading "German knowledge, German philosophy, German art and—if God wills—German religion. Only a Kaiser who undertakes this task is a true Kaiser of the German people."[126] To allow Germany to become a world power, Chamberlain called for the Reich to become the world's greatest sea power, as Chamberlain asserted that whatever power rules the seas also rules the world.[127] Chamberlain wrote that "without a fleet nothing can be done. But equipped with a great fleet, Germany is embarking on the course to which Cromwell showed England the way, and she can and must steer resolutely towards the goal of becoming the first power in the world. She has the moral justification for it and therefore also the duty."[127] |
人種の伝道者 イギリス訪問とそのユダヤ人への攻撃 1900年、チェンバレンは数十年ぶりに、彼が「ボーア人の土地」と軽蔑的に呼んだイギリスを訪問した[123]。ロンドンからコジマ・ワグナーに宛てた 手紙によると、彼のイギリス、つまり貴族の支配、勤勉、男らしい勇気のイギリス、彼が想像するロマンチックな「メリーオールドイングランド」はもう存在し ない、それはチェンバレンが物質主義、魂のない社会、集団目的の意味を持たず個人に霧化し、完全に欲に支配されていると見るものに置き換わっている、とし て悲しげな様子で述べている[124]。 チェンバレンは、1880年代以降、イギリスは「マモンへの奉仕を選んだ」と書き、そのためにユダヤ人を非難し、ワグナーに宛ててこう書いている [124]。「チェンバレンが言及していた「ユダヤ人」とは、チェンバレンが常に熱狂的に嫌っていたディズレーリのことであった[123]。「私の古いイ ギリスはどこにも認められない」[123] チェンバレンは手紙の中で、すべてのイギリスのビジネスマンは今や不正直であり、中流階級は、独りよがりで愚かであり、小さな農民や商店はもはやユダヤ人 経営の大企業に対抗できず、王政は社会の変化によって「回復不能なほど弱体化して」いると宣言した[123] 。要するにチェンバレンにとってイギリスはもはや彼の国ではないのであった。 世界を支配するドイツの優位性 1900年の夏、チェンバレンは雑誌『ユーゲント』にエッセイを書き、そこでこう宣言している。「チェンバレンはさらに、ヴィルヘルム2世の治世は新しい 日の夜明けのような性格を持っている[125]と書き、ヴィルヘルムは「実際、最初のドイツの皇帝」で、自分の使命は「ドイツの知識、ドイツの哲学、ドイ ツの芸術、もし神が望まれるならドイツの宗教」を広めることによって世界を「高貴にすること」であることを知っていた、と述べた。ドイツが世界の大国とな るために、チェンバレンは帝国が世界最大の海洋国家となることを求め、チェンバレンは、海を支配するものは世界をも支配すると主張した[127]。しか し、大きな艦隊を備えたドイツは、クロムウェルがイングランドに道を示したコースに着手しており、世界第一の権力者になるという目標に向かって断固として 舵を切ることができるし、そうしなければならないのである。彼女にはそのための道徳的正当性があり、したがってまた義務もある」[127]。 |
| Kaiser Wilhelm II In early 1901, the German Emperor Wilhelm II read The Foundations and was immensely impressed with the book.[128] The Imperial Grand Chamberlain at the court, Ulrich von Bülow, the brother of the Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow, wrote in a letter to a friend in January 1901 that the Kaiser was "studying the book a second time page by page".[128] In November 1901, Chamberlain's friend, the German diplomat and courtier Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg, who happened to be the best friend of Wilhelm II, introduced Chamberlain to the Kaiser.[30] Chamberlain and Wilhelm first met at Eulenburg's estate at Liebenberg and soon became very good friends, maintaining a regular correspondence which continued until Chamberlain's death in 1927.[30] To reach Liebenberg from Vienna, Chamberlain had first to take a train to Berlin, and then board another train to Liebenberg.[128] Chamberlain's meeting with the Kaiser was considered so important that when Chamberlain reached Berlin, he was met by the Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow, who joined him on the trip to Liebenberg.[128] During the train ride, Bülow and Chamberlain had a long discussion about The Foundations and then French literature. Upon reaching the gates of Liebenberg in the evening, Chamberlain and Bülow were met by Wilhelm and Eulenburg who were surrounded by servants carrying torches.[129] When he met Chamberlain for the first time, Wilhelm told him: "I thank you for what you have done for Germany!"[129] The next day, Eulenburg wrote to a friend that the Emperor "stood completely under the spell of this man [Chamberlain], whom he understood better than any of the other guests because of his thorough study of The Foundations".[129] Until Chamberlain's death, he and Wilhelm had what the American historian Geoffrey Field called "a warm, personal bond", which was expressed in a series of "... elaborate, wordy letters, full of mutual admiration and half-baked ideas".[129] The Wilhelm–Chamberlain letters were full of "the perplexing thought world of mystical and racist conservatism". They ranged far and wide in subject matter: the ennobling mission of the Germanic race, the corroding forces of Ultramontanism, materialism and the "destructive poison" of Judentum were favorite themes.[130] Other subjects often discussed in the Wilhelm-Chamberlain letters were the dangers posed to the Reich by the "Yellow Peril", "Tartarized Slavdom", and the "black hordes".[131] In 1901, Wilhelm informed Chamberlain in a letter that: "God sent your book to the German people, just as he sent you personally to me, that is my unshakably firm conviction."[132] Wilhelm went on to praise Chamberlain as his "comrade-in-arms and ally in the struggle for Teutons against Rome, Jerusalem, etc."[132] In 1902, Wilhelm wrote another letter in which he told Chamberlain: "May you save our German Volk, our Germanentum, for God has sent you as our helper!"[132] Chamberlain in his turn advised Wilhelm to create "a racially aware ... centrally organised Germany with a clear sense of purpose, a Germany which would 'rule the world'".[132] In 1903, Chamberlain wrote to Wilhelm to claim that as in the last decadent days of Rome, "the civis britannicus is now become a purely political concept" with no racial content being involved.[133] Chamberlain wrote with disgust how for two shillings and a sixpence, "every Basuto nigger" could now carry a British passport.[133] Chamberlain went on to predict within the next fifty years "the English aristocracy will be nothing but a money oligarchy, without a shred of racial solidarity or relation to the throne."[133] Chamberlain went on to deplore the practice of raising businessmen to the peerage in Britain, contemptuously declaring that in Britain mere "brewers, ink manufacturers and ship-owners" now sat in the House of Lords.[123] Chamberlain ended his letter to the Kaiser by calling the general British public "a herd which has no will and which a few newspapers and handful of politicians manipulate as they wish".[123] Wilhelm's later concept of "Juda-England", of a decaying Britain sucked dried by Jewish capitalists, owed much to Chamberlain.[133] The Dutch journalist Ian Buruma described Chamberlain's letters to the Kaiser as pushing his "… Anglophobic, anti-Semitic, Germanophile ideas to the point of murderous lunacy".[69] The liberal Berliner Zeitung newspaper complained in an editorial of the close friendship between Wilhelm II and such an outspoken racist and anti-Semite as Chamberlain, stating this was a real cause for concern for decent, caring people both inside and outside Germany.[134] |
カイザー・ヴィルヘルム2世 1901年初頭、ドイツ皇帝ヴィルヘルム2世は『基礎』を読み、絶大な感銘を受けた[128] 宮廷大侍従長のウルリッヒ・フォン・ビューロー（首相ベルンハルト・フォン・ビューローの弟）は1901年1月に友人への手紙で皇帝が「この本を2回目に 1ページずつ勉強中」であると書いている[129]。 [1901年11月、チェンバレンの友人で、ドイツの外交官・廷臣であるオイレンブルク公フィリップは、偶然にもヴィルヘルム2世の親友であり、チェンバ レンをカイザーに紹介した[30]。チェンバレンとヴィルヘルムはオイレンブルクの領地のリーベンベルクで初めて出会い、すぐに非常に良い友人となった。 チェンバレンがウィーンからリーベンベルクに到着するには、まず列車でベルリンに行き、さらに列車でリーベンベルクに向かう必要があった[128]。チェ ンバレンはカイザーとの会談を非常に重要視し、ベルリンに到着すると宰相のベルンハルト・フォン・ブロー公が迎えに来て、リーベンベルクの旅に同行した [128]。列車移動中、ブローは、『建国』とフランス文学について長く語り合ったという[128]。夕刻にリーベンベルクの門に到着したチェンバレンと ビューローは、松明を持った召使いに囲まれたヴィルヘルムとオイレンブルクに迎えられた[129]。 チェンバレンに初めて会ったヴィルヘルムは、彼に言った。"I thank you for what you have done for Germany!"[129] 翌日、オイレンブルクは友人に、皇帝は「この男（チェンバレン）の魔法に完全にかかり、彼が『基礎』を徹底的に研究したために、他のどの客よりもよく理解 していた」と書いている[129]。 チェンバレンが亡くなるまで、彼とヴィルヘルムはアメリカの歴史家ジェフリー・フィールドが「温かく個人的な絆」と呼ぶものを持ち、それは一連の「... 手の込んだ、言葉の多い、相互称賛と半端な考えに満ちた手紙」で表現された[129] ヴィルヘルム＝チェンバレンの手紙には「神秘的かつ差別主義者の保守主義の紛らわしい思考の世界」が詰まっていた。ヴィルヘルム＝チェンバレン書簡でしば しば議論された他のテーマは、「黄禍」、「韃靼スラヴ」、「黒人の大群」によって帝国にもたらされる危険だった[130]。 1901年、ヴィルヘルムは手紙の中でチェンバレンにこう伝えている。1901年、ヴィルヘルムはチェンバレンに次のように伝えている：「神があなたの本 をドイツ国民に送った、ちょうど彼が個人的にあなたを私に送ったように、それは私の揺るぎない確固たる信念です」[132] ヴィルヘルムは続けてチェンバレンを「ローマ、エルサレムなどに対するドイツ人のための闘いの戦友、味方」として賞賛した[132] 1902年に、ヴィルヘルムは別の手紙を書いており、チェンバレンに対して言った。あなたが私たちのドイツ人民、私たちのゲルマン帝国を救ってくれますよ うに！神が私たちの助力者としてあなたを送ってくださったのですから！」[132] チェンバレンは今度はヴィルヘルムに対して、「人種的自覚を持った...明確な目的意識を持った中央集権的なドイツ、『世界を支配する』ドイツ」の創設を 勧めた[132]。 1903年にチェンバレンはヴィルヘルムに手紙を書き、ローマの最後の退廃的な時代のように、「シビス・ブリタニカスは今や純粋に政治的な概念になってい る」と主張し、人種的な内容は関与していないとしている[133]。 [チェンバレンは、2シリングと6ペンスで「すべてのバスート・ニガー」がイギリスのパスポートを所持できるようになったことを嫌悪感をもって書いている [133]。チェンバレンはさらに、今後50年以内に「イギリス貴族は、人種的連帯や王位との関係のかけらもない、金の寡頭制に過ぎなくなるだろう」と予 測している。 「チェンバレンはさらに、イギリスでは単なる「ビール醸造業者、インク製造業者、船主」が貴族院に座っていると侮蔑的に宣言し、実業家を貴族に引き上げる 慣習を嘆いた[133]。 [チェンバレンはカイザーへの手紙の最後で、一般的なイギリス国民を「意思を持たず、少数の新聞社と一握りの政治家が好き勝手に操る群れ」と呼んだ [123]。 ヴィルヘルムは後に「ユダヤ・イングランド」という、ユダヤ人資本家に吸い尽くされて衰退したイギリスという概念を提唱したが、チェンバレンに多くを負っ ていたのである[133]。 オランダ人ジャーナリストのイアン・ブルマは、チェンバレンがカイザーに宛てた手紙を「...イギリス嫌い、反ユダヤ主義、ドイツびいきの考えを、殺人的 な狂気の域にまで押し上げる」と評した[69]。 リベラル紙のベルリン・ツァイトゥングは社説で、ヴィルヘルム2世と、チェンバレンほどはっきりとした差別主義者や反ユダヤ主義者との親交について訴え、 これはドイツ国内外の良識があり思いやりがある人々の真の心配材料だと述べている[134]。 |
| Admiring England and loathing it For Wilhelm, all pride about being German had a certain ambivalence, as he was in fact half-British.[135] In an age of ultra-nationalism with identities being increasingly defined in racial terms, his mixed heritage imposed considerable psychological strain on Wilhelm, who managed at one and the same time to be both an Anglophile and Anglophobe; he was a man who both loved and hated the British, and his writings about the land of his mother displayed both extreme admiration and loathing.[135] Buruma observed that for all his much-vaunted beliefs in public about the superiority of everything German, in private Wilhelm often displayed signs of an inferiority complex to the British, as if he really felt deep down that it was Britain, not Germany, that was the world's greatest country.[135] For Wilhelm, someone like Chamberlain, the Englishman who came to Germany to praise the Fatherland as the world's greatest nation, and who had "scientifically" proven that "fact" in The Foundations, was a "dream come true" for him.[136] Writing about the Chamberlain-Wilhelm relationship, Field stated: Chamberlain helped place Wilhelm's tangled and vaguely formulated fears of Pan Slavism, the black and yellow "hordes", Jews, Ultramontanes, Social Democrats, and free-thinkers to a global and historical framework copiously footnoted and sustained by a vast array of erudite information. He elevated the Emperor's dream of a German mission into an elaborate vision of divinely ordained, racial destiny. The lack of precision, the muddle, and logical flaws that are so apparent to modern readers of The Foundations did not bother Wilhelm: he eagerly submitted to its subjective, irrational style of reasoning. ... And if the Kaiser was a Prussian with an ingrained respect for English values and habits, Chamberlain was just as much an Englishman who was deeply ambivalent about his own birthplace and who revered German qualities and Prussian society. Almost unconsciously, as his vast correspondence shows, he adopted an obsequious, scraping tone when addressing the lowliest of Prussian army officers. If Wilhelm was drawn to the very Englishness of Chamberlain, the author of The Foundations saw in the Hohenzollern prince—at least until the World War—the very symbol of his idealized Deutschtum.[137] Chamberlain, who in the words of Buruma was "an English fetishist of German blood" who wrote long pseudo-scientific articles about how "Germanic racial genius" manifested itself in the cultural works of Richard Wagner, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ludwig van Beethoven, and William Shakespeare (Chamberlain considered Shakespeare to be a "Germanic playwright" who properly belonged to Germany), was the "perfect match" for Wilhelm.[30] Chamberlain frequently wrote to an appreciative and admiring Wilhelm telling him that it was only the noble "German spirit" which was saving the world from being destroyed by a "deracinated Yankee-Anglo-Jewish materialism".[138] Finally, Wilhelm was also a Wagnerite and found much to admire in Chamberlain's writings praising Wagner's music as a mystical, spiritual life-force that embodied all that was great about the "German spirit".[30] |
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| 'The Foundations' book success The success of The Foundations made Chamberlain famous all over the world. In 1906, the Brazilian intellectual Sílvio Romero cited Chamberlain together with Otto Ammon, Georges Vacher de Lapouge and Arthur de Gobineau as having proved that the blond "dolichocephalic" people of northern Europe were the best and greatest race in the entire world, and urged that Brazil could become a great nation by a huge influx of German immigrants who would achieve the embranquecimento (whitening) of Brazil.[139] Chamberlain received invitations to lecture on his racial theories at Yale and Johns Hopkins universities, but turned them down on the grounds that he had no wish to visit what he viewed as a culturally and spiritually debased nation like the United States.[140] Not family with Joseph and Neville Chamberlain When the book was first published, reviewers often asked who this Chamberlain was, and there was much fevered speculation in the German press as to whether Chamberlain was related to Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary who, as the principal author of the British forward policy in South Africa, was one of the most detested men in the Reich.[93] Several German magazines mistakenly printed pictures of Joseph Chamberlain's sons, Austen Chamberlain and Neville Chamberlain, identifying them as the author of The Foundations.[110] Many Germans breathed a sigh of relief when it was established that Houston Stewart Chamberlain was not related to the famous Chamberlain family of Birmingham.[110] The Chamberlain circle After the success of The Foundations, a Chamberlain Kreis (circle) appeared in Vienna that comprised the Indologist Leopold von Schroeder, Count Ulrich von Bülow; Countess Melanie Metternich-Zichy, Countess Marietta von Coundenhove, Baroness Emma von Ehrenfels, the music critic and Wagnerite Gustav Schonaich, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count Hermann Keyserling and Rudolf Kassner who met weekly at Chamberlain's home to discuss his racial theories.[141] Personal life and financials It was during this period that Chamberlain had an affair with Baroness von Ehrenfels, the wife of his friend Baron Christian von Ehrenfels and another affair with a Viennese showgirl, Lili Petri.[142] In 1906, his marriage to Anna ended in divorce.[143] Besides the income from sales of The Foundations and the essays he was constantly writing for newspapers and journals, Chamberlain was supported financially by a wealthy German piano-manufacturer, August Ludowici (who liked Chamberlain so much that he purchased a house for him), and by the Swiss industrialist Agénor Boissier, giving an annual income of about 30,000–40,000 marks (by contrast a German school-teacher had an annual income of 1,000 marks, while a professor made about 12,000 marks per year).[144] In 1908, after Cosima Wagner suggested the match, Chamberlain married Wagner's daughter Eva von Bülow. He was extremely happy to be married to the daughter of his hero Wagner.[145] |
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| Chamberlain's character Chamberlain, the self-proclaimed "Evangelist of Race",[citation needed] saw himself as a prophet, writing to the Kaiser: "Today, God relies only on the Germans. That is the knowledge, the sure truth, which has filled my soul for years; I have sacrificed my peace in serving it; for it I shall live and die."[146] Eulenburg recalled that under his quiet demeanor Chamberlain had a "fiery spirit with those eyes and looks which speak volumes".[47] The few who knew Chamberlain well described him as a quiet, reserved man full of urbane erudition and charm; a modest, genial character with elegant manners dressed in expensive suits who could talk brilliantly and with much wit about a great number of subjects for hours.[47] But under his polished surface, Chamberlain had a "fanatical and obsessive" side. His copious notebooks and letters show a man with "a profoundly irrational mind", a markedly sadistic and deeply paranoid individual who believed himself to be the victim of a monstrous worldwide Jewish conspiracy to destroy him.[147] Chamberlain's status as a semi-recluse came about because of his fear that the Jews were plotting his murder.[147] German world dominance by race A strong imperialist, Chamberlain was naturally a fervent supporter of Weltpolitik, under which Germany sought to become the world's dominant power, which he justified on racist grounds.[87] In 1904, when the German government committed the Herero and Namaqua Genocide against the Herero and Namaqua peoples in German South-West Africa (modern Namibia), Chamberlain congratulated Wilhelm in a letter for his genocidal policies, praising the Kaiser for his "war of extermination", which was "a fine example" of how Aryans should deal with "niggers".[148] In a 1906 letter to Wilhelm, Chamberlain announced that due to miscegenation caused by the Jews, Britain, France, Austria and Russia were all declining powers, and only the "pure" German Reich was capable of protecting the "life-giving center of Western Europe" from the "Tartarized Russians, the dreaming weakly mongrels of Oceania and South America, and the millions of blacks, impoverished in intellect and bestially inclined, who even now are arming for the war of the races in which there will be no quarter given".[87] Thus, Chamberlain wrote to Wilhelm, German Weltpolitik was a "sacred mission" to protect the superior races and cultures from the inferior.[87] Chamberlain concluded his letter that the ideas of white supremacy had "not only justified the vast aggressions of Russia and England in the 19th century, but it also sanctions beforehand all that Germany may choose to appropriate in the twentieth".[87] |
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| Antisemite Eulenburg's homosexuality In 1908, the Harden–Eulenburg affair badly damaged Wilhelm's reputation when Wilhelm's and Chamberlain's mutual friend Eulenburg was exposed in the press as a homosexual. Since Eulenburg had been the Emperor's best friend since 1886, the scandal led to much gossip all over the Reich about whether Wilhelm and Eulenburg had been more than just best friends. Eulenburg was quite open about being homosexual when he was in the company of his closest friends, and he and Wilhelm had been the very best of friends for 22 years, leading the British historian John C. G. Röhl to conclude it was very unlikely that Wilhelm was ignorant of Eulenburg's sexual orientation as he claimed after Eulenburg was outed.[149] After Eulenburg was exposed, the Kaiser wrote him a very cold letter saying that he could not stand the company of homosexuals, as such their friendship was now over and he never wanted to see or hear from Eulenburg again. Chamberlain was never as close to Eulenburg as Wilhelm was, and seemed genuinely shocked to learn of the allegations that Eulenburg was homosexual.[150] The Eulenburg affair played a role in Germany very similar to the Dreyfus affair in France, except that the victim in this case was the prominent anti-Semite Eulenburg. During the scandal, practically the entire völkisch movement came out in support of Eulenburg whom they portrayed as an Aryan heterosexual framed by false allegations of homosexuality by the Jews Max Bernstein and Magnus Hirschfeld.[151] The German journalist Theodor Wolff wrote in 1906 about Eulenburg's role as one of Germany's chief anti-Semites: I bet you ten to one that it was that skald [Eulenburg], the friend and admirer of Gobineau, who first pointed his other friend, the Kaiser towards the racial prophet's most eager disciple, Houston Stewart Chamberlain. The mystical notion of the "race that will bring order to the world" found its way from Gobineau via Eulenburg and Chamberlain to the Kaiser, and this notion in turn gave rise to the thought that "the world should be healed by the German spirit."[152] In a letter to Chamberlain, Wilhelm wrote that entire scandal had emerged because of "Jewish cheek, slander and lies".[153] In the same letter, an enraged Wilhelm told Chamberlain that Maximilian Harden, the German Jewish convert to Lutheranism and the journalist who had outed Eulenburg was a "loathsome, dirty Jewish fiend" and a "poisonous toad out of the slime of hell, a disgraceful stain on our Volk".[153] However, despite his strongly held anti-Semitism and his frequently expressed wish to expel the entire German Jewish community, the Kaiser held back under the grounds that if he expelled all of the Jews from Germany, it would set the German economy back by a century, and as such, he had to grudgingly tolerate his Jewish subjects.[154] |
反セム主義者オイレンブルグの同性愛 1908年、ヴィルヘルムとチェンバレンの共通の友人であるオイレンブルクが同性愛者であることがマスコミに暴露され、ハーデン＝オイレンブルク事件は ヴィルヘルムの評判を大きく傷つけることになった。オイレンブルクは1886年以来、皇帝の親友であったため、このスキャンダルによって、ヴィルヘルムと オイレンブルクが単なる親友以上であったかどうか、帝国中で多くのゴシップが流された。オイレンブルクは親しい友人たちといるときは同性愛者であることを 公言しており、彼とヴィルヘルムは22年間にわたり親友の間柄であったため、イギリスの歴史家ジョン・C・G・レールは、オイレンブルクが暴露された後に 主張したようにヴィルヘルムがオイレンブルクの性的指向を知らなかったとはとても思えないと結論付けた[149]。 オイレンブルクが暴露された後、カイザーはオイレンブルクに非常に冷たい手紙を書き、同性愛者との交際には耐えられない、そのため彼らの友情は終わった、 オイレンブルクとは二度と会うことも連絡を取ることも望まないと述べた[149]。チェンバレンはヴィルヘルムほどオイレンブルクと親しくなかったし、オ イレンブルクが同性愛者であるという疑惑を知って純粋にショックを受けたようだ[150] オイレンブルク事件はドイツにおいてフランスのドレフュス事件と非常に似た役割を果たしたが、この場合の被害者は著名な反ユダヤ主義者であるオイレンブル クであることは例外である。スキャンダルの間、事実上ヴェルキッシュ運動全体がオイレンブルクを支持するようになり、彼らは、ユダヤ人のマックス・バーン スタインとマグヌス・ハーシュフェルドによる同性愛の誤った疑惑にはめられたアーリア人異性愛者として描写した[151]。ドイツのジャーナリスト、テオ ドール・ヴォルフは、1906年にドイツの主要反ユダヤ教徒の1人としてのオイレンブルクの役割について書いた。 ゴビノーの友人であり崇拝者であるあの蜥蜴（オイレンブルク）が、もう一人の友人であるカイザーに、人種的預言者の最も熱心な弟子であるヒューストン・ス チュワート・チェンバレンを最初に紹介したことに私は10分の1賭けます。世界に秩序をもたらす人種」という神秘的な概念はゴビノーからオイレンブルク、 チェンバレンを経てカイザーに伝わり、この概念は「世界はドイツ精神によって癒されるべきだ」という思想を生み出すことになった[152]。 チェンバレンに宛てた手紙の中で、ヴィルヘルムはスキャンダルの全てが「ユダヤ人の生意気さ、中傷、嘘」のために生じたと書いている[153]。同じ手紙 の中で、激怒したヴィルヘルムは、ルター派に転向したドイツのユダヤ人でエウレンブルクのことを暴露したジャーナリストのマクシミリアン・ハーデンについ て、「憎むべき汚いユダヤ人の悪党」「地獄のぬかるみから出た毒蛙、我々のフォークの不名誉な汚点」だとチェンバレンに述べている[153]。 [しかし、反ユダヤ主義を強く主張し、ドイツのユダヤ人社会をすべて追放したいと頻繁に表明していたにもかかわらず、カイザーは、ドイツからすべてのユダ ヤ人を追放すれば、ドイツ経済を1世紀後退させるという理由で我慢し、そのため、ユダヤ人の臣下をやむなく容認した[154]。 |
| Toning down attacks on Catholicism As a part of his role as the "Evangelist of Race", Chamberlain toned down his anti-Catholicism in the first decade of the 20th century, realizing belatedly that his attacks on the Catholic Church in The Foundations had alienated the German Catholic community from his message.[155] Themes: German unity and German science and philosophy As a well-known public intellectual, Chamberlain wrote on numerous subjects in a vast array of newspapers and magazines. Besides attacking the Jews, one of the chief themes of Chamberlain's essays was the unity of German culture, language, race and art, and the need for the unity of German art with a racialized "Germanic Christianity".[156] The other major theme of Chamberlain's work was science and philosophy. Chamberlain was always keenly interested in modern science and saw himself as a scientist, but he was deeply critical of the claim that modern science could explain everything, believing there was a spiritual side to humanity that science could not explain.[157] As such, Chamberlain believed that modern Germany was being destroyed by people losing their spiritual aspects owing to the materialist belief that science could explain all.[158] In his 1905 biography of one of his heroes, the philosopher Immanuel Kant, Chamberlain argued that Kant had shown the limits of rationalism and reason for understanding the world.[159] Instead, Chamberlain argued that Kant had shown that the instinctive approach based on intuition was a far more valid way of understanding the world.[159] Inevitably, Chamberlain's "Kantian" way of understanding science was used to attack the Jews, with Chamberlain writing: "In order to understand Kant we must ... begin by once and for all getting rid of the heavy burden of inherited and indoctrinated Jewish conceptions."[160] In the same way, Chamberlain's 1912 biography of another of his heroes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, was used to pass on the same message. Chamberlain depicted Goethe as a "Kantian" man who had correctly embraced both the rational, scientific approaches to life and the instinctive, mystical approach to achieve a synthesis that embraced the best of both worlds.[161] Again, Chamberlain used Goethe as a way of attacking the Jews, with Chamberlain claiming that Goethe had favored banning sexual relations between Aryans and Jews and was a man who would not have "suffered among us" the Jewish artists, journalists, and professors of modern Germany.[162] The German Jewish journal Im deutschen Reich wrote in a review of Goethe that Chamberlain had appropriated Goethe in "a polemic about race politics, racial hygiene and racial worth from the standpoint of a monomaniacal Judeophobia".[162] |
|
| Embracing Treitschke The policies of Weltpolitik, especially the Tirpitz Plan, brought about a period of Anglo-German tension in the first years of the 20th century. Chamberlain, who detested the land of his birth, had no trouble taking sides in the emerging Anglo-German antagonism.[79] Chamberlain, who came to hate Britain, expressed his approval of the writings of the Anglophobic and anti-Semitic German historian Heinrich von Treitschke, whose view of Britain as a grasping, greedy nation of cheap traders dishonestly vacuuming up the world's wealth was the same as his own.[124] In another letter to Wilhelm, Chamberlain wrote: "There are periods, when history is, as it were, woven on a loom ... in such a way that the warp and woof are established and are essentially unalterable; but then come times when the threads are introduced for a new fabric, when the time of material and the design must first be determined. ... We find ourselves in such a time today."[163] Necessary German power Chamberlain declared to Wilhelm that Germany now had to become the world's greatest power, both for its own good and for the good of the rest of the world.[140] In his letter, Chamberlain dismissed France as a second-rate nation that could only fall further; Russia was a nation of "stupid" Slavs which was only just being held together because Nicholas II had German blood; without the German blood in the House of Romanov "nothing would remain but a decaying matière brute" in Russia; and Britain was clearly declining into a bottomless pit of greed, ineffective democratic politics and unrestrained individualism.[163] Chamberlain was very anti-American and called the United States a "Dollar dynasty", writing: From dollars only dollars can come, nothing else; spiritually America will live only so long as the stream of European spiritual power flows there, not a moment longer. That part of the world, it may be proven, creates sterility, it has as little of a future as it has a past.[140] Chamberlain concluded his letter to Wilhelm that: "The future progress of mankind depends on a powerful Germany extending far across the earth."[140] To this end, Chamberlain advocated German expansionism both in Europe and all over the world; building the High Seas Fleet which would break the British mastery of the seas; and restructuring German society along the lines advocated by the extreme right-wing völkisch Pan-German League.[164] |
|
| Propagandist of the World War In August 1914, he started suffering from a progressive paralysis of the limbs.[165][166] At the end of the war, Chamberlain's paralysis had already befallen much of his body; his chronically bad health had reached its final stage.[165] By the time World War I started in 1914, Chamberlain remained British only by virtue of his name and nationality. When the war started, Chamberlain tried to enlist in the German Army, but was turned down on the account of his age (then 58) and bad health.[167] In August 1914, Chamberlain wrote a letter to his brother, Basil Hall Chamberlain, explaining why he had sided with his adopted country that read: "No war has ever been simpler than this; England has not for a moment reduced her efforts to do everything humanly possible to bring it about and to destroy every peaceful impulse. ... Germany's victory will not be England's ruin; quite the contrary, it is the only hope for England's rescue from the total ruin in which she now stands. England's victory will be terrible for the whole world, a catastrophe."[168] The same month, Chamberlain published an essay celebrating Wilhelm II as an "Aryan soldier-king" and as a "Siegfried" who had embraced the "struggle against the corroding poison of Jewry".[169] Chamberlain went on to call the war "a life-or-death struggle ... between two human ideals: the German and the un-German".[169] Accordingly, the Reich must "for the next hundred years or more" strengthen all things German and carry out "the determined extermination of the un-German".[169] Chamberlain happily welcomed the war, writing in September 1914 to his friend Prince Max of Baden: "I thank God that I have been allowed to experience these two exaltations—1870 and 1914—and that I was both times in Germany and saw the truth with my own eyes."[170] In his 1914 essay, "Whose Fault Is the War?", Chamberlain blamed the war on France, Russia and especially Britain.[171] Chamberlain argued though St. Petersburg and Paris were both seeking war, it was London who had masterminded the war, and the French and Russians were just British puppets.[172] Initially Chamberlain expected the war to be over by the end of 1914, and was very disappointed when that did not occur.[170] In 1916 he also acquired German citizenship. He had already begun propagandising on behalf of the German government and continued to do so throughout the war. His vociferous denunciations of his land of birth, it has been posited,[173] were the culmination of his rejection of his native England's capitalism, in favour of a form of German Romanticism akin to that which he had cultivated in himself during his years at Cheltenham. The British historian John C. G. Röhl wrote the war made the "brutality in general and anti-Semitism in particular" of people like the Kaiser and Chamberlain "more intense".[169] |
|
| During World War I, Chamberlain
published several propaganda texts against his country of
birth—Kriegsaufsätze (Wartime Essays). In the first four tracts, he
maintained that Germany is a nation of peace; England's political
system is a sham, while Germany exhibits true freedom; German is the
greatest and only remaining "living" language; and the world would be
better off doing away with English and French-styled parliamentary
governments in favour of German rule "thought out by a few and carried
out with iron consequence". The final two discuss England and Germany
at length.[174] Chamberlain's basic argument was that democracy was an
idiotic system as equality was a myth—humans were very different with
different abilities and talents, so democratic equality where the
opinions of one voter mattered much as the opinions of the next was a
completely flawed idea.[175] Quoting the French scientist Gustave Le
Bon, Chamberlain wrote the vast majority of people were simply too
stupid to properly understand the issues, and as such Germany with its
rule by elites was a much better governed nation than France.[176] In
Germany, Chamberlain asserted, true freedom existed, as freedom came
from the state alone which made it possible for society to function,
not the individual as was the case in Britain and France, which
Chamberlain claimed was a recipe for chaos.[177] Field summarized
Chamberlain's thesis "... the essence of German freedom was the willing
submission as a matter of conscience to legitimately constituted
authorities; it implied duty more than rights and was something
spiritual and internal for which each moral being had to strive.
Consigning 'liberty' to an inner, 'nonpolitical' moral realm,
Chamberlain closed off any discussion of the specific conditions for a
free society and simply asserted that freedom was perfectly compatible
with an authoritarian system of government."[177] Quoting—sometimes
wildly out of context—various British, French and American authors,
such as John Richard Green, William Edward Hartpole Lecky, John Robert
Seeley, John Ruskin, Thomas Carlyle, Paul Bourget, Francis Delaisi,
James Bryce, John Burgess, Woodrow Wilson, and H. G. Wells, Chamberlain
argued that in democratic states, it was always big business that was
really in charge; as such democracy was a fraud and democratic
governments only served the rich; and democratic states only existed
"to further the interests of money making all over the globe".[178]
Chamberlain's attacks on democracy as a sham designed to allow "Jewish
plutocrats" to rule the world were not only very anti-British and
anti-French, but also anti-American.[179] Right from the start of the
war, Chamberlain attacked all democratic governments in the world
including the neutral United States as a fraud perpetrated by the
Jews.[180] Chamberlain wrote that America "is a hellish whirlpool, in
which all the contradictions of the world, all the greed, envy and lust
brew and simmer; a wild struggle of millions of ignorant egotists, men
without ideas, ideals, or traditions, without shared values, without
any capacity for sacrifice, an atomic chaos endowed with no true power
of nature".[181] Until the United States entered the war in 1917, the
Auswärtiges Amt worked hard to prevent Chamberlain's essays with their
strong anti-American content from appearing abroad out of the fear that
they would offend opinion in America.[181] Chamberlain's wartime
writings also gained much attention – albeit of a highly negative sort
– in his native Britain, with The Times Literary Supplement declaring:
"The most ignorant of the Germans has not written greater
nonsense."[182] In 1915, an unauthorised translation of Chamberlain's
wartime essays was published in London under the unflattering title of
The Ravings of a Renegade.[182] |
|
| In his 1915 pamphlet Deutschland
und England (Germany and England), Chamberlain vigorously took the side
of his adopted land against the land of his birth.[69] Chamberlain
explained in Germany and England how the British were once noble Aryans
like the Germans who lived in a perfect rigidly hierarchical,
romantically rural "unmixed" society, but then starting in the 16th
century capitalism had corrupted the English.[69] Capitalism had turned
the English into an urban nation dominated by a vulgar money-grubbing,
philistine middle class incapable of any sort of culture.[69] The
beautiful English countryside, which Chamberlain claimed was once the
home of an idyllic agrarian society, had become an ugly urban landscape
full of polluting factories owned by greedy Jewish capitalists. Even
worse in Chamberlain's opinion, capitalism had led the English into a
process of racial degeneration, democracy and rule by the Jews.[69]
Chamberlain wrote with disgust how the sons of the English aristocracy
"disappear from society to make money", leading to a warped "moral
compass" on their part in contrast to Germany where the Junkers either
tended to their estates or had careers in the Army.[69] Chamberlain's
discussion of Britain ended with the lament that his idealised "Merry
Old England" no longer existed, with Chamberlain writing: We were merry, we are merry no longer. The complete decline of country life and the equally complete victory of God Mammon, the deity of Industry and Trade, have caused the true, harmless, refreshing merriness to betake itself out of England.[183] |
|
| Germany by contrast in
Chamberlain's view, had preserved its racial purity and by having an
authoritarian government and a welfare state, had avoided both
laissez-faire capitalism and Jewish rule.[183] It was for this reason
that Chamberlain alleged that Britain had started World War I in 1914
to destroy Germany.[183] For all these reasons Chamberlain stated he
had come to hate Britain and love Germany, as Germany had preserved
everything that Chamberlain considered to be noble in humanity while
Britain had long since lost its nobility of spirit.[183] Chamberlain
received the Iron Cross from the Kaiser, with whom he was in regular
correspondence, in 1916.[184] By this time, Chamberlain's obsessive
anti-Semitism had reached the point that Chamberlain was suffering from
nightmares in which he was kidnapped and sentenced to death by the
Jews.[61] In 1915, Chamberlain wrote proudly in a letter to a friend
that: "My lawyer friend in Munich tells me there is no living being
whom the Jews hate more than I."[61] In another essay, Chamberlain
wrote the "pure Germanic force" had to be saved from the "disgusting
worm" (the phrase "disgusting worm" was often used by Wagner to
describe the Jews).[169] Chamberlain wrote the purpose of this
"struggle" was "salvation from the claws of the un-German and
anti-German", going on to quote from Wagner's 1850 anti-Semitic essay
Das Judenthum in der Musik that "Against this devil's brood stands
Germany as God's champion: Siegfried against the worm!"[169] During the war years, Chamberlain was one of the "annexationists" who wanted the war to end with Germany annexing most of Europe, Africa and Asia to give the Reich the "world power status" he believed it deserved.[185] As such, Chamberlain worked closely with the Pan-German League, the Conservatives and the völkische groups to mobilise public support for the maximum war aims he sought.[185] Chamberlain was a founding member of the Independent Commission for a German Peace, and in July 1915 he signed the Address of the Intellectuals, a petition signed by 1,347 teachers, writers, professors, and theologians asking the government to win the war in order to annex as much territory as possible.[185] Much of this propaganda including Chamberlain's essays in support of the maximum war aims had a very strong anti-Semitic character, as Chamberlain claimed that it was the entire German Jewish community who were supposedly seeking a compromise peace to end the war, and were preventing the full mobilization of Germany's power that would allow the Reich to win the war.[186] In a letter to his friend Prince Maximilian of Baden, Chamberlain wrote: I learned today from a man who is especially well-placed to observe these things—even when they go on secretly—that the Jews are completely intoxicated by their success in Germany—first from the millions they have gained through the war, then because of the praise showered on them in all official quarters, and thirdly from the protection they and their machinations enjoy from the censor. Thus, already they are beginning to lose their heads and reach a degree of insolence which may allow us to hope for a flood-tide of reaction. May God grant it!.[186] |
|
| In October–November 1916, the
so-called Judenzählung ("Jew count") was held by the German Army to
examine the popular anti-Semitic claim that German Jews were "shirking"
their duty to the Fatherland by avoiding war service.[187] The "Jew
count" revealed that in fact German Jews were disproportionately
over-represented in the front-line units, as most German Jews were
anxious to prove their German patriotism and love of the Fatherland by
volunteering for front-line duty. Many young German Jewish men wished
to rebut the anti-Semitic canard that they were not real Germans by
fighting for the Fatherland, and thus showing that they loved Germany
as much as their Gentile neighbors, hence the disproportionate number
of German Jews on the front-line compared to their share of the German
population.[188] As the results of the "Jew count" did not please the
two men in charge of High Command, namely Field Marshal Paul von
Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff, the latter a "fanatical
anti-Semite" who had been expecting the "Jew Count" to reveal that
German Jews were disproportionally underrepresented on the front-line,
the High Command issued a facetious statement saying that for the
safety of the German Jewish community the "Jew count" could not be made
public, as it would endanger the lives of German Jews.[187][189] The
implication that if people could see just how far German Jews were
allegedly "shirking" their duty to the Fatherland, then pogroms would
break out in Germany led to a major upsurge in anti-Semitism, which
Chamberlain was quick to exploit.[190] In support of a harder line both in the war and on the home front, Chamberlain involved himself in the intrigues to oust Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg as Chancellor and replace him with the "hard man", Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz.[191] In Chamberlain's opinion, if only Germany were to wage the war more ruthlessly and brutally, then the war would be won.[192] Chamberlain loathed Bethmann-Hollweg whom he saw as an inept leader who simply did not have the will to win.[170] Chamberlain had an unbounded confidence in the ability of the Army and Navy to win the war, but on the home front, Chamberlain believed the Reich was "leaderless" as he viewed Bethmann-Hollweg as a Jewish "puppet" unwilling and unable to stop defeatism, corruption or the demand for more democracy.[186] Besides supporting Tirpitz as Chancellor, Chamberlain was all for adopting unrestricted submarine warfare—even at the risk of provoking the United States into the war—as the best way of starving Britain into surrender.[193] Chamberlain was also a very public supporter of Zeppelin raids to destroy British cities.[193] After a discussion with his friend and admirer, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Chamberlain published a newspaper essay in July 1915 complaining that the government had imposed far too many restrictions on Zeppelin raids in order to save innocent British lives, and he argued that his country should bomb British cities with no concern for lives of civilians as ordinary British people deserved to die.[193] |
|
| The campaign by the
annexationists against Bethmann-Hollweg was in large part motivated by
the fact that the annexationists believed that Bethmann-Hollweg was not
one of them. Had Chamberlain or any of the other annexationists been
aware of the secret September Programme of 1914, where Bethmann-Hollweg
planned to announce his intentions for annexing much of Europe and
Africa after the soon to be expected fall of Paris, they would have had
a different opinion of Bethmann-Hollweg.[194] Under the constitution of
1871, the Reichstag had limited powers, but one of those was the right
to vote on the budget. In the 1912 Reichstag elections, the
anti-militarist Social Democrats had won the largest number of seats in
the Reichstag. Thus Bethmann-Hollweg had to work with the SPD to get
the budgets passed to finance the war.[194] In August 1914, the
government had been able to persuade the majority of the SPD to support
the war on the grounds that Russia was supposedly about to attack
Germany.[194] The SPD broke into two; the Majority Social Democrats
supported the war while the minority Independent Social Democrats
stayed true to their pacifist beliefs and opposed the war. The Majority
Social Democrats agreed to support the war to the extent it was
portrayed as a defensive struggle against Russia, but the Majority SPD
wanted nothing to do with the annexationists.[194] Hence,
Bethmann-Hollweg's refusal to support the annexationists in public was
due to pragmatic political considerations, namely, his need for
majority Social Democratic co-operation in the Reichstag as opposed to
being against the annexationists as Chamberlain mistakenly
believed.[195] If the parties supporting annexationists, such as the
Conservatives, National Liberals and Free Conservatives, had done
better in the 1912 elections, Bethmann-Hollweg would almost certainly
have taken a different line in public regarding the demands of the
annexationists.[195] Much of Chamberlain's strident, aggressive and
embittered rhetoric reflected the fact that the annexationists were a
minority in Germany, albeit a significant, vocal, well organised
minority with many influential members inside and outside the
government, but a minority nonetheless.[196] The majority of the German
people did not support the annexationists.[196] Chamberlain regarded
the refusal of the democratic parties like the left-wing SPD, the
right-of-the-centre Zentrum and the liberal Progressives to join the
annexationist movement as essentially high treason. In August 1916,
there occurred what amounted to a military coup d'état when Field
Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff informed
Wilhelm and Bethmann-Hollweg that henceforward the Army would no longer
obey either the Kaiser or the government, and that from now the Emperor
and the Chancellor would now obey the Army. In July 1917 Hindenburg and
Ludendorff had Bethmann-Hollweg dismissed and replaced with Georg
Michaelis as Chancellor. Chamberlain's preferred candidate as
Chancellor, Admiral Tirpitz, was passed over. Tirpitz was an
intelligent, media-savvy, charismatic political intriguer with a
desperate hunger for political power, but the duumvirate of Hindenburg
and Ludendorff regarded Tirpitz as Chancellor as too much of a threat
to their own power. In response to the firing of Bethmann-Hollweg, the
democratic parties decided to protest by passing a peace resolution.
The Reichstag Peace Resolution of July 1917—in which the SPD, Zentrum
and the Progressives all joined forces to vote for a resolution asking
the government to start peace talks at once on the basis of a return to
the status quo of 1914—"inflamed the paranoia and desperation of the
right. The annexationists prepared for a war to the knife against the
Chancellor and domestic "traitors"."[197] Chamberlain was disappointed
that Tirpitz had not been appointed Chancellor; however, he was
overjoyed with Bethmann-Hollweg's sacking and welcomed the military
dictatorship of Hindenburg and Ludendorff as giving Germany the sort of
government it needed.[198] Chamberlain was always inclined to hero
worship, and for him, Hindenburg and Ludendorff were the greatest of a
long line of German heroes.[198] Chamberlain wrote in 1917 that: "Had
Hindenburg and Ludendorff stood on the first day in their rightful
place, the peace would in all probability have been dictated in Paris
before the end of 1914."[198] |
|
| Besides being an annexationist
who wanted to see the war end with Germany as the world's greatest
power, Chamberlain also advocated a set of wide-ranging changes to
German society intended to achieve a "rebirth" of Germany.[199]
Chamberlain wanted to see the Spirit of 1914 made permanent, to convert
the wartime Burgfrieden ("peace within a castle under siege") into a
peacetime Volksgemeinschaft (people's community).[199] He also wanted a
new economic and social system that would be a "third way" between
capitalism and socialism to bring about the Volksgemeinschaft organized
along corporatist lines.[181] To achieve this, Chamberlain called for
the end to any remaining democratic features the constitution of 1871
still possessed and the creation of a pure dictatorship; for the end of
the capitalist system with the state to nationalize huge sections of
the economy while at the same time respecting the right to private
property; and for the militarization of society on a new scale.[200]
Chamberlain was somewhat vague about how this corporatist society would
work in practice, but what he wanted was rule by an oligarchy of
aristocrats, intellectuals, bureaucrats and military officers who would
run a "planned economy" via "scientific management".[201] The entire
German people (except for the Jews, whom Chamberlain believed did not
belong in Germany) were to be united by a common loyalty to the
Emperor. A fanatical monarchist, Chamberlain saw the monarchy as the
bedrock of German life, writing in his 1915 book Politische Ideale:
"Whoever speaks of a republic in Germany belongs on the gallows; the
monarchical idea is here a holy law of life."[202] At the same time,
Chamberlain envisioned a Germany that would somehow remain the leading
industrial power at the forefront of modern technology while at the
same time become a romantic, agrarian society where ordinary people
would work the land and retain their traditional deference to the
aristocracy.[203] Chamberlain was also vague about how this could be
achieved, writing only that a "planned economy", "scientific
management" and an economically interventionist state committed to
social reforms would make it all possible.[201] |
|
| After Germany's diplomatic
defeat in the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911, Wilhelm II became the
Schattenkaiser (the "Shadow Emperor"), an increasingly reclusive figure
who was seen less and less in public. The war further reinforced
Wilhelm's tendency to avoid the public spotlight as much as possible.
In private, Chamberlain grew disillusioned with his friend, complaining
that instead of being the "Aryan soldier king" leading the Reich to
victory as he wanted and expected him to be, the Kaiser was a weak
leader as the "Shadow Emperor" was hiding himself away in deep
seclusion from the rest of Germany at his hunting lodges.[186]
Wilhelm's hiding himself away from his own people during the war did
immense damage to the prestige of the monarchy, and if the Kaiser's
seclusion did not make the November Revolution of 1918 inevitable, it
at least made it possible. As a monarchist, Chamberlain was worried
about how Wilhelm was hurting his own reputation, and often vainly
urged the Kaiser to appear in public more often. Chamberlain wrote in
1916 that Wilhelm had an "absolute incapability for judging character"
and was now being "forced to obey a Frankfurt pimp", the last being a
disparaging reference to Bethmann-Hollweg.[186] Chamberlain was always
very careful to avoid attacking Wilhelm in public, but his violent
press attacks against Bethmann-Hollweg caused something of a rift with
the Kaiser who felt Chamberlain's very public criticism of the
Chancellor was also an indirect attack on him.[191] Nonetheless,
despite the strains the war imposed on their friendship, Chamberlain
and Wilhelm continued to write throughout the war, but pointedly did
not meet in person anymore, though Chamberlain's increasing paralysis
also played a part. Wilhelm wrote to Chamberlain on 15 January 1917,
stating: The war is a struggle between two Weltanschauungen, the Teutonic-German for morality, right, loyalty and faith, genuine humanity, truth and real freedom, against ... the worship of Mammon, the power of money, pleasure, land-hunger, lies, betrayal, deceit and—last but not least—treacherous assassination! These two Weltanschauungen cannot be reconciled or tolerate one another, one must be victorious, the other must go under![204] |
|
In response, Chamberlain wrote back to Wilhelm on 20 January 1917, declaring: England has fallen totally into the hands of the Jews and the Americans. A person does not understand this war unless he realizes that it is in the deepest sense the war of Judentum and its near relative Americanism for the control of the world—a war against Christianity, against Bildung, moral strength, uncommercial art, against every idealist perspective on life, and for the benefit of a world that would include only industry, finance, and trade—in short, unrestricted plutocracy. All the other additional factors—Russian greed, French vanity, Italian bombast, the envious and cowardly spirit of the neutrals—are whipped up, made crazy; the Jew and the Yankee are the driving forces that operate consciously and in a certain sense have hitherto been victorious or at all events successful ... It is the war of modern mechanized "civilization" against the ancient, holy and continually reborn culture of chosen races. Machines will crush both spirit and soul in their clutches.[193] Chamberlain continued to believe right up until the end of the war that Germany would win only if the people willed victory enough, and this sort of ideological war between "German idealism" vs. "Jewish materialism" could only end with one side utterly crushing the other.[197] In the last two years of the war, Chamberlain became obsessed with defeating the "inner enemy" that he believed was holding Germany back.[198] In this regard, Chamberlain frequently asserted that Germany was not one nation, but two; on one side, the "patriots" like Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, General Erich Ludendorff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, Wolfgang Kapp, J. F. Lehmann and Count von Reventlow; and on the other, the "traitors" which included people like Philipp Scheidemann, Eduard David and Matthias Erzberger.[198] No compromise between these two Germanies was possible or desirable, Chamberlain argued, and one would have to be destroyed.[198] Chamberlain's wartime writings against the "inner enemy" anticipated the "stab-in-the-back legend" which emerged after 1918. Chamberlain was a founding member of both the extreme-right, anti-Semitic Deutschlands Erneuerung newspaper, and of the Fatherland Party in 1917.[198] The character of the Fatherland Party was well illustrated by an infamous incident in January 1918 when at a Fatherland Party rally in Berlin, a group of disabled war veterans were invited to debate the Fatherland Party's speakers.[205] The wounded veterans, including men who were paralyzed, blinded, missing limbs, etc. all declared that they were now against the war and had become pacifists.[205] The crippled veterans deplored the Fatherland Party's militarism and demand for war to go until victory, regardless of how many more would have to die or end up living with destroyed bodies.[205] The ultra-nationalists of the Fatherland Party were so enraged by what the crippled veterans had to say that the audience stormed the stage, and savagely beat the disabled veterans senseless.[205] Chamberlain, who lived in Bayreuth. was not present during the Berlin rally, but expressed his approval of what had happened when he heard of it. |
|
| During the war, most Germans saw
Britain as the main enemy, and so Chamberlain's status as the
Englishman who supported the Reich made him an even more famous
celebrity in Germany than he had been before 1914.[182] Chamberlain's
wartime essays were widely read. The first set of essays sold 160,000
copies within six months of publication while the second set sold
75,000 copies within six weeks of publication.[206] Between 1914 and
1918 about 1 million copies of Chamberlain's essays were sold, making
Chamberlain one of Germany's best read writers during the war.[206] In
December 1915, it was estimated that between the direct sales of
Chamberlain's essays and reprints in newspapers, at least 3 million
people had read Chamberlain's war-time writings.[206] Such was the
power of Chamberlain as a public figure that in August 1916 the German
Jewish industrialist Walther Rathenau—whom Chamberlain had often
accused of profiteering—mailed Chamberlain a copy of his bank balance
sheets, which showed that Rathenau was in fact getting poorer as a
result of the war, and politely asked Chamberlain to stop accusing him
of war profiteering.[207] Rathenau's appeal made no impression, and
Chamberlain continued to accuse Rathenau of war profiteering right
until he was assassinated in 1922.[208] In 1917 Chamberlain wrote about
the liberal Frankfurter Zeitung newspaper: "No knowledgeable person,
can doubt that the enemy is at work among us ... whenever England has
something up her sleeve against the interests of Germany, she uses the
Frankfurter Zeitung."[208] Bernhard Guttmann, the editor of the
Frankfurter Zeitung sued Chamberlain for libel about that article.[208]
In August 1918, the sensational libel trial which attracted much media
attention opened. The Frankfurter Zeitung's lawyers were Conrad
Haussmann and Hertz while Chamberlain was defended by Heinrich Class
and Adolf Jacobsen.[209] On 16 August 1918, the trial ended with the
judge ruling that Chamberlain was indeed guilty of libel and fined him
1,500 marks.[210] The guilty verdict set off a storm in right-wing
circles, who quickly held several successful fund-raisers that raised
the necessary 1,500 marks to pay Chamberlain's fine.[211] |
|
| Hitler's mentor In November 1918, Chamberlain was completely shattered and horrified by Germany's defeat in the war, a defeat he believed to be impossible, as well as by the November Revolution, which had toppled his beloved monarchy.[212] Adding to his bitterness, Chamberlain was now so paralyzed that he could no longer leave his bed, something that he believed to be the result of poisoning by the British secret service.[213] Chamberlain saw both the defeat and the revolution of 1918 as the work of the Jews, writing in 1919 that Germany was now under the "supremacy of the Jews".[214] In his last years, Chamberlain's anti-Semitic writings grew ever more violent and bloodthirsty as Chamberlain became even more intensely anti-Semitic than he had been before 1918. In March 1920, Chamberlain supported the Kapp Putsch against the Weimar Republic, which he called the Judenrepublik ("Jewish Republic"), and was even more embittered by its failure.[215] The Kapp putsch was defeated by a general strike called by the Social Democrats which shut down the entire German economy. A young völkisch activist Josef Stolzing-Cerny and a Chamberlain protégé who had participated in the Kapp putsch wrote to Chamberlain after its failure: "Unfortunately Kapp was not all 'the man with the lion heart', much rather the man with the beer heart, for he continually used all his energies befuddling his brain with alcohol. ... In the same situation a Bismarck or a Napoleon would have hunted the whole Jewish-socialist republic to the devil."[215] Stolzing-Cerny went on to criticize Kapp for not unleashing the Freikorps Marinebrigade Ehrhardt which had taken Berlin against the Jews of Berlin, instead ordering the Freikorps to keep order.[215] After the failure of the putsch, Chamberlain no longer considered Wolfgang Kapp to be one of his heroes, and instead damned him as a weak-willed coward all too typical of German conservatives who talked tough, but never followed up their words with action.[215] More importantly, the failure of the Kapp putsch to a certain extent discredited traditional German conservatism in Chamberlain's eyes, and led him on the search for a more radical alternative, a type of "German socialism" that would offer a "third way" between capitalism and socialism.[216] |
ヒトラーの精神的指導者 1918年11月、チェンバレンは、不可能だと信じていたドイツの敗戦と、彼の愛する王政を崩壊させた11月革命によって完全に打ちのめされ、恐怖を感じ ていた[212] 彼の苦渋に加え、チェンバレンはもはやベッドから出られないほど麻痺していたが、それはイギリスの秘密情報機関による毒物の結果であると信じていたもので あった。 [213] チェンバレンは1918年の敗北と革命の両方をユダヤ人の仕業と見なし、1919年にドイツは今や「ユダヤ人の至高性」の下にあると書いた[214]。晩 年、チェンバレンの反ユダヤ的著作は、1918年より前よりもさらに激しく反ユダヤ的になり、血生臭いものとなっていった。1920年3月、チェンバレン はワイマール共和国に対して、彼が「ユダヤ共和国」と呼んだカップ一揆を支持し、その失敗によってさらに憤慨した[215]。 カップ一揆は、社会民主党が呼びかけたゼネストによって敗北し、ドイツ経済全体が停止させられた。若いヴェルキッシュ活動家ヨーゼフ・シュトルツィング＝ チェルニーとカッ プの抗議行動に参加したチェンバレンの弟子は、その失敗の後にチェンバレンに手紙を出している。残念ながらカッペは "ライオンの心を持った男 "ではなく、むしろビールの心を持った男であった。同じ状況であれば、ビスマルクやナポレオンはユダヤ人社会主義共和国全体を悪魔に狩っただろう」 [215] シュトルツィング＝チェルニーはさらに、ベルリンのユダヤ人に対してベルリンを占領したフライコルプス・マリーンブリゲード・エーハルトを解放せず、フラ イコルプスに秩序維持の命令を出したことを批判している[215]。 チェンバレンは、実行が失敗した後、もはやヴォルフガング・カップを英雄の一人と見なさず、 代わりに、強弁するが、その言葉を行動で追わないドイツの保守派にあまりにも典型的な意志薄弱な臆病者と して彼を貶めた[215]。 [より重要なことは、カッ プの強行採決の失敗がチェンバレンの目には伝統的なドイツの保守主義の信用をある程度失墜させ、彼 をより急進的な代替案、つまり資本主義と社会主義の間の「第三の道」を提供するタイプの「ドイツ 社会主義」の探求に駆り立てたことである[216]。 |
| In January 1921, Stolzing-Cerny,
who joined the NSDAP in December 1920, wrote to Chamberlain about the
new man on the political scene, "one Adolf Hitler, an Austrian worker,
a man of extraordinary oratorical talents and an astonishingly rich
political knowledge who knows marvelously how to thrill the
masses".[217] Initially, Chamberlain was hesitant about Hitler,
believing that he might be another Kapp, but after the "battle of
Coburg", in which Hitler had personally fought with his followers in a
street battle against the Communists, Chamberlain started to see Hitler
as someone who practiced what he preached. From that time onwards,
Chamberlain started to closely follow and admire Hitler, whom he saw as
"Germany's savior".[218] Hitler in his turn had read The Foundations,
Chamberlain's biography of Wagner, and many of his wartime essays, and
was much influenced by all that Chamberlain had written.[219] British
historian Sir Ian Kershaw, a biographer of Hitler, writes that ... Hitler drew heavily for his ideas from well known anti-Semitic tracts such as those by Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Adolf Wahrmund and especially, the arch-popularizer Theodor Fritsch (one of whose emphasis was the alleged sexual abuse of women by the Jews)...[220] |
|
| The fact that Hitler was an
ardent Wagnerite who adored Wagner's music gave Chamberlain and Hitler
a mutual ground for friendship beyond their shared hatred of the
Jews.[218] Likewise, Joseph Goebbels had been converted to the völkisch
ideology after reading Chamberlain's books and essays, and came to the
conclusion on the basis of Chamberlain's writings that the West could
only be saved by removing the Jews from German society.[221] During
this period, Chamberlain, who was practically a member of the Wagner
family, started to push for the Bayreuth Festival to become openly
identified with völkisch politics, and to turn the previously
apolitical festival into a völkisch rally.[222] Despite his paralysis, Chamberlain whose mind was still sharp, remained active as a writer, maintaining a correspondence with a whole gamut of figures from Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz to the radical anti-Semitic journalist Theodor Fritsch, the leader of the völkisch Hammerbund ("Hammer League").[223] From his exile in the Netherlands, the former Kaiser wrote to Chamberlain in 1922 to tell him that thanks to his essays, he had become a Marcionist and now rejected the Old Testament.[224] Wilhelm claimed that on the basis of Chamberlain's work, he now knew that what had become the Old Testament was in fact a Zoroastrian text from ancient Persia (modern Iran) and was therefore "Aryan".[224] The former Kaiser claimed that the Jews had stolen and rewritten this sacred text from the Aryan Persians, ending his letter: "Let us free ourselves from the Judentum with its Jawe!"[224] In 1923, Wilhelm wrote to tell Chamberlain of his belief that not only were the Jews "not our religious forebears", but that Jesus was "not a Jew", was instead an Aryan "of exceptional beauty, tall and slim with a noble face inspiring respect and love; his hair blond shading into chestnut brown, his arms and hands noble and exquisitely formed".[224] In 1923 Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler in Bayreuth, and in September he sat in his wheelchair next to Hitler during the völkisch "German Day" paramilitary parade. In September 1923 he wrote a grateful and highly admiring open letter to the NSDAP leader.[166] Chamberlain, paralysed and despondent after Germany's losses in World War I, wrote to Hitler after his first visit in September 1923: Most respected and dear Hitler, ... It is hardly surprising that a man like that can give peace to a poor suffering spirit! Especially when he is dedicated to the service of the fatherland. My faith in Germandom has not wavered for a moment, though my hopes were—I confess—at a low ebb. With one stroke you have transformed the state of my soul. That Germany, in the hour of her greatest need, brings forth a Hitler—that is proof of her vitality ... that the magnificent Ludendorff openly supports you and your movement: What wonderful confirmation! I can now go untroubled to sleep ... May God protect you![225] |
ヒトラーがワーグナーの音楽を崇拝する熱烈なワーグナー派であったことは、チェンバレンとヒトラーに、ユダヤ人に対する共通の憎悪を超えた相互の友好の基盤を与えた[218] 同様に、ヨーゼフ・ゲッベルスはチェンバレンの著書やエッセーを読んでフェルキッシュ思想に改宗し、ユダヤ人をドイツ社会から取り除くことによってのみ西洋は救済できるという結論をチェンバレンの著作に基づいて導き出したのだった[222] 。 [221] この時期、実質的にワーグナー家の一員であったチェンバレンは、バイロイト音楽祭を公然とヴェルキッシュの政治と結びつけ、それまで無政治だった音楽祭をヴェルキッシュの集会にするよう働きかけ始めた[222]。 チェンバレンは麻痺していたにもかかわらず、まだ頭が冴えており、アルフレッド・フォン・ティルピッツ提督から過激な反ユダヤ主義ジャーナリストであり、 フェルキッシュ・ハマーブント（「ハンマー同盟」）のリーダーであるテオドール・フリッシュまで、あらゆる人物と文通をしていた[223] オランダに亡命していた旧カイザーは1922年にチェンバレンに手紙を出し、彼のエッセイのおかげでマルキオニストとなり旧約聖書を拒否したと伝えている [223]。 [ヴィルヘルムは、チェンバレンの著作に基づいて、旧約聖書となったものは実際には古代ペルシャ（現在のイラン）のゾロアスター教のテキストであり、した がって「アーリア人」であることを知っていると主張した[224]。元カイザーは、ユダヤ人がこのアーリア人ペルシャ人から聖典を盗んで書き直したと主張 して、手紙を結んでいる。「1923年、ヴィルヘルムはチェンバレンに、ユダヤ人は「我々の宗教的先祖ではない」だけでなく、イエスは「ユダヤ人ではな い」、その代わりにアーリア人であり、「並外れた美しさで、背が高く、スリムで尊敬と愛を抱かせる気高い顔をしており、髪はブロンドから栗色の影があり、 腕と手は高貴で絶妙に整っている」という彼の信念を手紙で伝える[224][224]。 1923年、チェンバレンはバイロイトでアドルフ・ヒトラーと会談し、9月にはヴェルキッシュの「ドイツの日」準軍事パレードでヒトラーの隣に車椅子で 座った。1923年9月、彼はNSDAP指導者に感謝と賞賛の公開書簡を書いた[166] チェンバレンは、第一次世界大戦でのドイツの敗戦後、半身不随で落胆し、1923年9月の最初の訪問後にヒトラーに手紙を書いている。 最も尊敬する、親愛なるヒトラー、...。あのような人が、貧しい苦悩する精神に安らぎを与えることができるのは、驚くにはあたらない。特に、彼が祖国の ために献身している場合は。ドイツに対する私の信頼は一瞬たりとも揺らぐことはなかった。私の希望は、正直言って、最低のものであったが。あなたは一撃で 私の魂を 変えてしまいました ドイツが最も必要とする時に ヒトラーを出現させたことは ドイツの活力の証明です 立派なルデンドルフが 公然とあなたと あなたの運動を支持したことは なんと素晴らしい確認でしょう。私はこれで安心して眠りにつくことができます...。神があなたを守ってくれますように！[225] |
| Chamberlain's letter—which made
him into the first celebrity to endorse the NSDAP—caused a media
sensation in Germany and led Hitler to rejoice "like a child" at the
news.[226] When Hitler staged the Munich Beer Hall Putsch in November
1923, Chamberlain wrote an essay for the Völkischer Beobachter entitled
"God Wills It!" calling on all Germans who love Germany to join the
putsch.[227][50] After the failure of the Munich Putsch, Chamberlain
wrote: "We are deeply affected by this tragic fate, Jew and Jesuit can
now triumph again!".[227] Chamberlain joined the Nazi Party and contributed to its publications. Its primary journal, the Völkischer Beobachter, dedicated five columns to praising him on his 70th birthday, describing The Foundations as the "gospel of the National Socialist movement".[228] In January 1924, Chamberlain published an essay praising Hitler as one of the "rare beautiful beings... a man of genuine simplicity with a fascinating gaze" whose words "always come directly from the heart".[229] Chamberlain praised Hitler for embarking upon a "Vernichtungskrieg" ("war of destruction") against all of Germany's enemies.[230] Chamberlain further wrote about Hitler—whom he viewed as the greatest of all his heroes—that: Because he [Hitler] is no mere phrasemonger, but consistently pursues his thought to an end and draws his conclusions from it, he recognizes and proclaims that one cannot simultaneously embrace Jesus and those that crucified him. That is the splendid thing about Hitler—his courage! ... In this respect he reminds one of Luther. And whence come the courage of these two men? It derives from the holy seriousness each has for the cause! Hitler utters no word he does not mean in earnest; his speeches contain no padding or vague, provisional statements ... but the result of this is that he is decried as a visionary dreamer. People consider Hitler a dreamer whose head is full of impossible schemes and yet a renowned and original historian called him "the most creative mind since Bismarck in the area of statecraft." I believe ... we are all inclined to view those things as impractical that we do not already see accomplished before us. He, for example, finds it impossible to share our conviction about the pernicious, even murderous influence of Jewry on the German Volk and not to take action; if one sees the danger, then steps must be taken against it with utter dispatch. I daresay everyone recognizes this, but nobody risks speaking out; nobody ventures to extract the consequences of his thoughts for his actions; nobody except Hitler. ... This man has worked like a divine blessing, cheering hearts, opening men's eyes to clearly seen goals, enlivening their spirits, kindling their capacity for love and for indignation, hardening their courage and resoluteness. Yet we still need him badly: May God who sent him to us preserve him for many years as a "blessing for the German Fatherland!"[231] |
|
| After the failure of the Munich
Putsch, Hitler was convicted of high treason and imprisoned. When the
1924 Bayreuth Festival opened, Chamberlain's efforts to identify the
festival with völkisch politics finally bore fruit.[232] The
Festspielhügel opera house and the way leading up to it were decorated
with völkisch symbols like the swastika, parades by the nationalist
Verbände were held outside the Festspielhügel, prominent völkisch
leaders like General Erich Ludendorff appeared on the stage to give a
speech attacking the Weimar Republic before one of the operas was
performed, and a petition was offered to the audiences demanding that
Hitler be pardoned.[232] The 1924 festival led to 10,000 people in one
night signing the petition asking for Hitler's release.[232] From his
prison cell at Landsberg prison, Hitler wrote to Siegfried Wagner
expressing his sorrow about being unable to attend his beloved Bayreuth
Festival and to express his thanks to the entire Wagner family and
Chamberlain for turning the Bayreuth festival into a völkisch rally,
adding that when he got out of prison, he would come to Bayreuth as
"the first witness and herald" of Germany's rebirth.[233] Hitler stated
this would be the best medicine for Chamberlain's health as "the road
to Berlin" started in Bayreuth.[234] In May 1926, one year before
Chamberlain's death, Hitler and Goebbels visited him in Bayreuth.[50]
Chamberlain assured Hitler of his belief that he was the "chosen one"
destined to lead Germany back to greatness after the defeat of 1918, to
make the Reich a world power, and finally smash the Jews.[235] Much of
Hitler's genuine affection for Chamberlain was due to the fact that
Chamberlain never lost his faith in Hitler's potential, even at time in
the mid-1920s when the NSDAP was faring very poorly.[236] Chamberlain continued living in Bayreuth until his death in 1927.[237][238] Chamberlain died on 9 January 1927 and his ashes were buried at the Bayreuth cemetery in the presence of Adolf Hitler. His gravestone bears a verse from the Gospel of Luke, which he considered to spell out the essential difference between his ideal type of Christianity, and JudaismImpact of The Foundations. During his lifetime Chamberlain's works were read widely throughout Europe, and especially in Germany. His reception was particularly favourable among Germany's conservative elite. Kaiser Wilhelm II patronised Chamberlain, maintaining a correspondence, inviting him to stay at his court, distributing copies of The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century among the German Army, and seeing that The Foundations was carried in German libraries and included in the school curricula.[56][225] In 1932 in an essay entitled "Anti-Semitics" denouncing antisemitism, the "homeless left" German journalist Carl von Ossietzky wrote: "Intellectual anti-Semitism was the special prerogative of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who, in The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, concretized the fantasies of Count Arthur de Gobineau, which had penetrated to Bayreuth. He translated them from the language of harmless snobbery into [the language] of a modernized, seductive mysticism."[239] Ossietzky ended his essay with the warning: "Today there is a strong smell of blood in the air. Literary anti-Semitism forges the moral weapon for murder. Sturdy and honest lads will take care of the rest."[239] The Foundations would prove to be a seminal work in German nationalism. Due to its success, aided by Chamberlain's association with the Wagner circle, its ideas of Aryan supremacy and a struggle against Jewish influence spread widely across the German state at the beginning of the century. If it did not form the framework of later Nazi ideology, at the very least it provided its adherents with a seeming intellectual justification.[240] Many of Chamberlain's ideas such as his emphasis on a racial struggle between Aryans vs. Jews for world domination; his championing of "world power status" for Germany; his call for a "planned economy" (something realized in 1936 when Hitler brought in the First Four Year Plan which saw the German state take over the economy); his vision of Germany becoming the Volksgemeinschaft (people's community"); his demand for a "third way" between capitalism and socialism; his total opposition to democracy; and his nostalgia for an agrarian lifestyle were central to Nazism.[241] The only Nazi idea that Chamberlain missed was Lebensraum (living space), the perceived need for Germany to colonize Eastern Europe while displacing the existing population to make room for Aryan colonists. However, there were differences in that Chamberlain was always a monarchist and believed that when his friend Hitler came to power, he would restore the monarchy and put his other friend Wilhelm II back on the throne.[241] Moreover, Chamberlain was just one of the many völkische thinkers who influenced Hitler.[241] and Catholicism as he saw them: "The Kingdom of God is within you." (Luke 17:21)[50] |
ミュ
ンヘン一揆が失敗した後、ヒトラーは大逆罪で有罪判決を受け、投獄された。1924年にバイロイト音楽祭が開催されると、音楽祭をヴェルキッシュの政治と
結びつけようとしたチェンバレンの努力はようやく実を結ぶ。
[歌劇場とそこに至る道は鉤十字のようなヴェルキッシュのシンボルで飾られ、歌劇場の外では民族主義者（Verbände）によるパレードが行われ、エー
リヒ・ルーデンドルフ将軍などのヴェルキッシュの有力者が上演前に舞台に登場してワイマール共和国を攻撃するスピーチを行い、観客にヒトラーの釈放を求め
る請願書が差し入れられた[232] 1924年にこのフェスティバルで一夜にして1万の人々がヒトラー解放請願にサインをしたと言われている。
[ランツベルク刑務所の獄舎から、ヒトラーはジークフリード・ワーグナーに、愛するバイロイト音楽祭に参加できないことを嘆き、バイロイト音楽祭をフェル
キッシュの集会にしたワーグナー家全員とチェンバレンに感謝し、出所したらドイツの再生の「最初の証人、前触れ」としてバイロイトに来ると書いた
[233]
ヒトラーは、「ベルリンへの道」がバイロイトから始まったのでこれはチェンバレンの健康に最高の薬になるだろう、と述べた[230][233]。
[チェンバレンの死の1年前の1926年5月、ヒトラーとゲッベルスはバイロイトに彼を訪ねた[50]
チェンバレンは、自分が1918年の敗戦後のドイツを再び偉大な国に導き、帝国を世界の大国にし、最後にユダヤ人を粉砕する運命の「選ばれた者」だとヒト
ラーに確信していることを保証した。
[チェンバレンに対するヒトラーの真の愛情の多くは、チェンバレンが1920年代半ばのNSDAPが非常に低迷していた時期でさえもヒトラーの可能性に対
する信頼を失うことがなかったことに起因している[236]。 チェンバレンは1927年に亡くなるまでバイロイトに住み続けた[237][238]。1927年1月9日に亡くなり、遺灰はバイロイト墓地にアドルフ・ ヒトラー立会いのもと埋葬された。墓碑にはルカ福音書の一節が刻まれているが、これは彼が理想とするキリスト教とユダヤ教の本質的な違いを言い表している と考えていた。チェンバレンの著作は、生前、ヨーロッパ全土、特にドイツで広く読まれた。特にドイツの保守的なエリートの間で好意的に受け止められた。 ヴィルヘルム2世はチェンバレンを支援し、文通を続け、宮廷に招待し、ドイツ軍に『19世紀の基礎』のコピーを配布し、『基礎』がドイツの図書館に置か れ、学校のカリキュラムに含まれるように配慮した[56][225]。 1932年、「ホームレス左翼」のドイツのジャーナリストであるカール・フォン・オシエツキーは、反ユダヤ主義を非難する「反ユダヤ主義」と題するエッセ イの中で、「知的反ユダヤ主義は、ヒューストン・スチュワート・チェンバレンの特別な特権であり、彼は、バイロイトに浸透したアルトゥール・ド・ゴビノー 伯爵の幻想を『19世紀の基礎』で具体化した」と記している[56][225] 。彼はそれを無害な俗物の言葉から、近代化された魅惑的な神秘主義の言葉に翻訳した」[239] オシエツキーは警告でそのエッセイを締めくくっている。「今日、空気中には強い血の臭いが漂っている。文学的な反ユダヤ主義は、殺人のための道徳的な武器 を偽造する。頑丈で正直な若者たちが、残りの部分を引き受けてくれるだろう」[239]。 この『基礎』は、ドイツ・ナショナリズムの代表的な作品となった。チェンバレンがワーグナー・サークルと関係していたことも手伝って、その成功のために、 アーリア人至上主義とユダヤ人の影響に対する闘争という思想は、世紀初めのドイツ国家に広く浸透していくことになる。チェンバレンの思想の多くは、アーリ ア人対ユダヤ人の世界征服のための人種的闘争を強調し、ユダヤ人の影響力に対する闘争を強調するものであった[240]。チェンバレンは、世界征服のため のアーリア人対ユダヤ人の人種闘争の強調、ドイツの「世界大国の地位」の擁護、「計画経済」の要求（1936年にヒトラーが第1次4カ年計画を導入して実 現したもので、ドイツ国家が経済を掌握した）、ドイツを「人民共同体」にするというビジョン、資本主義と社会主義の間の「第三の道」の要求、民主主義への 完全な反対、農的生活へのノスタルジーなど、ナチズムにとって重要であった多くの考えを有していた[240]。 チェンバレンが唯一見逃していたナチスの考えは、アーリア人の入植のために現住 民を追い出しながらドイツが東ヨーロッパを植民地化する必要性を認識していたLebensraum （生活空間）であった[241]。しかし、チェンバレンは常に君主論者であり、友人であるヒトラーが権力を握れば、王政を復活させ、もう一人の友人である ヴィルヘルム2世を王位に就かせると信じていたという違いがあった[241]。さらに、チェンバレンはヒトラーに影響を与えた多くのヴェルキッシュ派思想 家の一人に過ぎない[241]と彼は考え、カトリック教を取り上げたのだった。"神の国はあなたがたの内にある" (ルカ17:21)[50]と述べている。 |
| Chamberlain himself lived to see
his ideas begin to bear fruit. Adolf Hitler, while still growing as a
political figure in Germany, visited him several times (in 1923 and in
1926, together with Joseph Goebbels) at the Wagner family's property in
Bayreuth.[225] Later, in January 1927, Hitler, along with several
highly ranked members of the Nazi Party, attended Chamberlain's
funeral.[242] Chamberlain's ideas particularly influenced Alfred
Rosenberg, who became the Nazi Party's in-house philosopher. In 1909,
some months before his 17th birthday, Rosenberg went with an aunt to
visit his guardian where several other relatives were gathered. Bored,
he went to a book shelf, picked up a copy of Chamberlain's The
Foundations and wrote of the moment: "I felt electrified; I wrote down
the title and went straight to the bookshop." In 1930 Rosenberg
published The Myth of the Twentieth Century, a homage to and
continuation of Chamberlain's work.[243] Rosenberg had accompanied
Hitler when he called upon Wagner's widow, Cosima, in October 1923 when
he met her son-in-law. Hitler told the ailing Chamberlain he was
working on his own book which, he intended, should do for Weimar-era
Germany what Chamberlain's book had done for Imperial Germany.[244] Beyond the Kaiser and the NSDAP, assessments were mixed. The French Germanic scholar Edmond Vermeil considered Chamberlain's ideas "essentially shoddy," but the anti-Nazi German author Konrad Heiden, despite objections to Chamberlain's racial ideas, described him as "one of the most astonishing talents in the history of the German mind, a mine of knowledge and profound ideas".[245] In a 1939 work Martin Heidegger (himself a former Nazi) dismissed Chamberlain's work as presenting a subjective, individualistic "Weltanschauung" (fabricated worldview).[246] |
チェ
ンバレン自身は、彼の考えが実を結び始めるのを見ることができた。ドイツで政治家として成長していたアドルフ・ヒトラーは、バイロイトのワーグナー家に数
回（1923年と1926年にヨーゼフ・ゲッベルスとともに）訪れ、その後1927年1月にヒトラーはナチ党の高官数名とともにチェンバレンの葬儀に出席
した[242]。チェンバレンの考えは、ナチ党内の哲学者となっているアルフレッド・ローゼンベルクに特に影響を与えている。1909年、17歳の誕生日
の数ヶ月前に、ローゼンベルクは叔母と一緒に他の親族が集まっている後見人を訪ねて行った。退屈していた彼は、本棚でチェンバレンの『基礎』を手に取り、
その時のことをこう書いている。「タイトルをメモして、本屋に直行した」。1930年、ローゼンベルクはチェンバレンの仕事へのオマージュであり継続でも
ある『20世紀の神話』を出版した[243]。ローゼンベルクは1923年10月にヒトラーがワーグナーの未亡人であるコジマに会った際に、彼女の婿に同
行したことがある。ヒトラーは、病床にあるチェンバレンに、チェンバレンの本が帝国ドイツに対して行ったことをワイマール時代のドイツに対して行うべきで
あると意図して、自分の本を執筆していることを伝えた[244]。 カイザーとNSDAPの外では、評価はまちまちであった。フランスのゲルマン学者エドモンド・ヴェルメイユはチェンバレンの考えを「本質的に粗悪なもの」 だと考えていたが、反ナチのドイツ人作家コンラッド・ハイデンは、チェンバレンの人種的な考えへの異論にもかかわらず、彼を「ドイツ精神史における最も驚 くべき才能の一人、知識と深い考えの鉱山」だと評した[245] 1939年の著作でマルティン・ハイデガー（彼自身もかつてナチだった）は主観的、個人主義の「Weltanschauung」（作られた世界像）を提示 したとしてチェンバレンの仕事を否定している[246]。 |
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain |
https://www.deepl.com/ja/translator |
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