※Evolutionary
Adaptation; "Evolutionary adaptation is defined as the alteration or
adjustment in structure or habits which is hereditary, and by which a
species or individual improves its ability to survive and pass on its
genes in relationship to the environment." From: Dog Behavior,
2019. - James C. Ha, Tracy L. Campion, Chapter 1 - Dawn of the dog:
Evolutionary theory and the origin of modern dogs (Canis familiaris),
in "Dog Behavior; Modern Science and Our Canine Companion" https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816498-3.00001-8
Friendship is a
relationship of mutual affection between people.[1] It is a stronger
form of interpersonal bond than an "acquaintance" or an "association",
such as a classmate, neighbor, coworker, or colleague.
In some cultures, the concept of friendship is restricted to a small
number of very deep relationships; in others, such as the U.S. and
Canada, a person could have many friends, and perhaps a more intense
relationship with one or two people, who may be called good friends or
best friends. Other colloquial terms include besties or Best Friends
Forever (BFFs). Although there are many forms of friendship, some of
which may vary from place to place, certain characteristics are present
in many such bonds. Such features include choosing to be with one
another, enjoying time spent together, and being able to engage in a
positive and supportive role to one another.[2]
Sometimes friends are distinguished from family, as in the saying
"friends and family", and sometimes from lovers (e.g., "lovers and
friends"), although the line is blurred with friends with benefits.
Similarly, the friend zone is a term for when someone is restricted
from rising up to the status of lover, hence the name (see also
Unrequited love).
Friendship has been studied in academic fields, such as communication,
sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and philosophy. Various
academic theories of friendship have been proposed, including social
exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, and attachment
styles.
The understanding of friendship
in children tends to be more heavily focused on areas such as common
activities, physical proximity, and shared expectations.[3]: 498 [a]
These friendships provide opportunity for playing and practicing
self-regulation.[4]: 246 Most children tend to describe friendship in
terms of things like sharing, and children are more likely to share
with someone they consider to be a friend.[4]: 246 [5][6] As children
mature, they become less individualized and are more aware of others.
They gain the ability to empathize with their friends, and enjoy
playing in groups. They also experience peer rejection as they move
through the middle childhood years. Establishing good friendships at a
young age helps a child to be better acclimated in society later on in
their life.[5]
Based upon the reports of teachers and mothers, 75% of preschool
children had at least one friend. This figure rose to 78% through the
fifth grade, as measured by co-nomination as friends, and 55% had a
mutual best friend.[4]: 247 About 15% of children were found to be
chronically friendless, reporting periods without mutual friends at
least six months.[4]: 250
Studies have shown that friendships in childhood can assist in the
development of certain skills, such as building empathy and learning
different problem solving techniques.[7] Coaching from parents can be
useful in helping children to make friends. Eileen Kennedy-Moore
describes three key ingredients of children's friendship formation: (1)
openness, (2) similarity, and (3) shared fun.[8][9][10] Parents can
also help children understand social guidelines they haven't learned on
their own.[11] Drawing from research by Robert Selman[12] and others,
Kennedy-Moore outlines developmental stages in children's friendship,
reflecting an increasing capacity to understand others' perspectives:
"I Want It My Way", "What's In It For Me?", "By the Rules", "Caring and
Sharing", and "Friends Through Thick and Thin."[13]
In adolescence, friendships
become "more giving, sharing, frank, supportive, and spontaneous."
Adolescents tend to seek out peers who can provide such qualities in a
reciprocal relationship, and to avoid peers whose problematic behavior
suggest they may not be able to satisfy these needs.[14] Personal
characteristics and dispositions are also features sought by
adolescents, when choosing whom to begin a friendship with.[15] During
adolescence, friendship relationships are more based on similar morals
and values, loyalty, and shared interests than that of children, in
which friendships stem from being in the same vicinity and access to
playthings.[4]: 246
One large study of American adolescents determined how their engagement
in problematic behavior (such as stealing, fighting, and truancy) was
related to their friendships. Findings indicated that adolescents were
less likely to engage in problem behavior when their friends did well
in school, participated in school activities, avoided drinking, and had
good mental health. The opposite was found regarding adolescents who
did engage in problematic behavior. Whether adolescents were influenced
by their friends to engage in problem behavior depended on how much
they were exposed to those friends, and whether they and their
friendship groups "fit in" at school.[16]
Friendships formed during post-secondary education last longer than
friendships formed earlier.[17] In late adolescence, cross-racial
friendships tend to be uncommon, likely due to prejudice and cultural
differences.[15]
Friendship in adulthood provides
companionship, affection, as well as emotional support, and contributes
positively to mental well-being and improved physical health.[18]: 426
Adults may find it particularly difficult to maintain meaningful
friendships in the workplace. "The workplace can crackle with
competition, so people learn to hide vulnerabilities and quirks from
colleagues. Work friendships often take on a transactional feel; it is
difficult to say where networking ends and real friendship begins."[19]
Unlike younger people, many adults value their financial well-being and
security that their job provides rather than developing friendships
with coworkers.[20]
The majority of adults have an average of two close friends.[21]
Numerous studies with adults suggest that friendships and other
supportive relationships do enhance self-esteem.[22]
Older adults continue to report
high levels of personal satisfaction in their friendships as they age,
even as the overall number of friends tends to decline. This
satisfaction is associated with an increased ability to accomplish
activities of daily living, as well as a reduced decline in cognitive
abilities, decreased instances of hospitalization, and better outcomes
related to rehabilitation.[18]: 427 The overall number of reported
friends in later life may be mediated by increased lucidity, better
speech and vision, and marital status.[23]: 53 A decline in the number
of friends an individual has as they become older has been explained by
Carstensen's Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, which describes a
change in motivation that adults experience when socializing. The
theory states that an increase in age is characterized by a shift from
information-gathering to emotional regulation; in order to maintain
positive emotions, older adults restrict their social groups to those
whom they share an emotional bond.[24]
As one review phrased it:
Research within the past four decades has now consistently found that
older adults reporting the highest levels of happiness and general well
being also report strong, close ties to numerous friends.[25]
As family responsibilities and vocational pressures lessen, friendships
become more important. Among the elderly, friendships can provide links
to the larger community, serve as a protective factor against
depression and loneliness, and compensate for potential losses in
social support previously given by family members.[26]: 32–33
Especially for people who cannot go out as often, interactions with
friends allow for continued societal interaction. Additionally, older
adults in declining health who remain in contact with friends show
improved psychological well-being.[27]
In general, female-female
friendship interactions among children mostly tend to focus on
interpersonal connections and mutual support. In contrast, male-male
interaction tends to be more focused on social status. As a result,
they may actively discourage the expression of emotional
needs.[46]: 320–02
Females report more anxiety, jealousy, and relational victimization and
less stability related to their friendships. Males, on the other hand,
report higher levels of physical victimization. Nevertheless, males and
females tend to report relative satisfaction levels with their
friendships.[4]: 249–50
Women tend to be more expressive and intimate in their same-sex
friendships and have a smaller range of friends.[15] Males are more
likely to define intimacy in terms of shared physical experiences. In
contrast, females are more likely to define it in shared emotional
ones. Males are less likely to make emotional or personal disclosures
to other males because they could use this information against them.
However, they will disclose this information to females (as they are
not in competition with them), and males tend to regard friendships
with females as more meaningful, intimate, and pleasant. Male-male
friendships are generally more like alliances, while female-female
friendships are much more attachment-based. As a result, this also
means that the end of male-male friendships tends to be less
emotionally upsetting than that of female-female friendships.[47][48]
Women tend to be more socially adept than their male peers among older
adults. As a result, many older men may rely upon a female companion,
such as a spouse, to compensate for their comparative lack of social
skills.[25]: 55 One study found that women in Europe and North America
were slightly more likely than men to self-report having a best
friend.[49]
Culture
Which relationships count as true friendships, rather than as an
acquaintance or a co-worker, varies by culture. In English-speaking
cultures, it is not unusual for people to include weaker relationships
as being friends.[50] In other cultures, such as the Russian and Polish
cultures, only the most significant relationships are considered
friends. A Russian might have one or two friends plus a large number of
"pals" or acquaintances; a Canadian in similar circumstances might
count all of these relationships as being friends.[50]
In Western cultures, friendships are often seen as lesser to familial
or romantic.[51] In practice, friendships in Ancient Greece were more
utilitarian than affectionate, being based upon obligation and
reliance, though they held a broad view on the variance of
friendship.[52][53] Aristotle wrote of there being three kinds of
friendships: those in recognition of pleasure, those in recognition of
advantage, and those in recognition of virtue.[53]
When discussing taboos of friendship it was found that Chinese
respondents found more than their British counterparts.[15][ambiguous]
Interspecies
Friendship is found among animals of higher intelligence, such as
higher mammals and some birds. Cross-species friendships are common
between humans and domestic animals, such as a pet snake. Cross-species
friendships may also occur between two non-human animals, such as dogs
and cats.
A man with an Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)