音楽とナショナリズム
Musical nationalism, music and nationlism
☆ 【ラテンアメリカにおける音楽とナショナリズム】
ラ
テンアメリカでは、特に第一次世界大戦後、国家や文化的アイデンティティが世界的に重視されるようになって以来、音楽は国家のアイデンティティにとって重
要な役割を担ってきた。民族が統一されたヨーロッパ諸国とは異なり、ラテンアメリカ諸国は先住民、白人、アフリカ系、アジア系など、さまざまな民族が混在
しており、1920年代から始まった国家のステレオタイプ化の過程では、先住民やアフリカ系の文化がテーマとされた。作曲家や演奏家は、さまざまな国の民
族や移民グループのフォークロアや遺産を利用し、それぞれの国を代表する音楽を生み出した。メキシコはマリアッチ・バンドの国となり、アルゼンチンはタン
ゴの国、ブラジルはサンバの国、キューバはルンバを含むアフロ・キューバン・リズムの島となった。ここに集められたエッセイは、音楽とナショナル・アイデ
ンティティ、メロディと民族的アイデンティティというふたつのテーマについて、有益な入門書を提供してくれる。寄稿者たちは、強力な歴史的ムーブメントが
音楽によって意図的に形成された様々な国々を検証している。- ウィリアム・H・ビーズリー編 2018.Cultural Nationalism
and Ethnic Music in Latin America.
| Music has been
critical to national identity in Latin America, especially since the
worldwide emphasis on nations and cultural identity that followed World
War I. Unlike European countries with unified ethnic populations, Latin
American nations claimed blended ethnicities--indigenous, Caucasian,
African, and Asian--and the process of national stereotyping that began
in the 1920s drew on themes of indigenous and African cultures.
Composers and performers drew on the folklore and heritage of ethnic
and immigrant groups in different nations to produce what became the
music representative of different countries. Mexico became the nation
of mariachi bands, Argentina the land of the tango, Brazil the country
of Samba, and Cuba the island of Afro-Cuban rhythms, including the
rhumba. The essays collected here offer a useful introduction to the
twin themes of music and national identity and melodies and ethnic
identification. The contributors examine a variety of countries where
powerful historical movements were shaped intentionally by music.
- William H. Beezley (ed.) 2018. Cultural Nationalism and Ethnic
Music in Latin America. Music is one of the most distinctive cultural characteristics of Latin American countries. But, while many people in the United States and Europe are familiar with musical genres such as salsa, merengue, and reggaeton, the musical manifestations that young people listen to in most Latin American countries are much more varied than these commercially successful ones that have entered the American and European markets. Not only that, the young people themselves often have little in common with the stereotypical image of them that exists in the American imagination. Bridging this divide between perception and reality, Music and Youth Culture in Latin America brings together contributors from throughout Latin America and the US to examine the ways in which music is used to advance identity claims in several Latin American countries and among Latinos in the US. From young Latin American musicians who want to participate in the vibrant jazz scene of New York without losing their cultural roots, to Peruvian rockers who sing in their native language (Quechua) for the same reasons, to the young Cubans who use music to construct a post-communist social identification, this volume sheds new light on the complex ways in which music provides people from different countries and social sectors with both enjoyment and tools for understanding who they are in terms of nationality, region, race, ethnicity, class, gender, and migration status. Drawing on a vast array of fields including popular music studies, ethnomusicology, sociology, and history, Music and Youth Culture in Latin America is an illuminating read for anyone interested in Latin American music, culture, and society. Narrative identities and popular music : linguistic discourses and social practices / Pablo Vila Past identity : Guillermo Klein, Miguel Zenón and the future of jazz / Jairo Moreno Errant surfing : music, YouTube, the role of the web in youth cultures / Rossana Reguillo Music and post-communist subjectivities in Cuba / Rubén López Cano On whitening and other disaffections : the impact of tropipop on Colombia's music scene / Héctor Fernández L'Hoeste Fusion rock bands and the "New Peru" on stage / Patricia Oliart Political activists, playboys and hippies : musical movements and symbolic representations of Brazilian youth in the 1960s / Marcos Napolitano The pro tools generation : digital culture, liveness, and the new sincerity in Brazilian popular music / Frederick Moehn A newer tango coming from the past / Laura Cambra and Juan Raffo Life trajectories and dejuvenilization in Argentine rock / Adrián Pablo Fanjul |
ラテンアメリカでは、特に第一次世界大戦後、国家や文化的アイデンティ
ティが世界的に重視されるようになって以来、音楽は国家のアイデンティティにとって重要な役割を担ってきた。民族が統一されたヨーロッパ諸国とは異なり、
ラテンアメリカ諸国は先住民、白人、アフリカ系、アジア系など、さまざまな民族が混在しており、1920年代から始まった国家のステレオタイプ化の過程で
は、先住民やアフリカ系の文化がテーマとされた。作曲家や演奏家は、さまざまな国の民族や移民グループのフォークロアや遺産を利用し、それぞれの国を代表
する音楽を生み出した。メキシコはマリアッチ・バンドの国となり、アルゼンチンはタンゴの国、ブラジルはサンバの国、キューバはルンバを含むアフロ・
キューバン・リズムの島となった。ここに集められたエッセイは、音楽とナショナル・アイデンティティ、メロディと民族的アイデンティティというふたつの
テーマについて、有益な入門書を提供してくれる。寄稿者たちは、強力な歴史的ムーブメントが音楽によって意図的に形成された様々な国々を検証している。-
ウィリアム・H・ビーズリー編 2018.Cultural Nationalism and Ethnic Music in Latin
America. 音楽は、ラテンアメリカ諸国の最も特徴的な文化的特徴のひとつである。しかし、アメリカやヨーロッパでは、サルサ、メレンゲ、レゲトンといった音楽ジャン ルに親しんでいる人が多いが、ほとんどのラテンアメリカ諸国で若者たちが聴いている音楽は、アメリカやヨーロッパの市場に入って商業的に成功したこれらの 音楽よりも、はるかに多様である。それだけでなく、若者たち自身も、アメリカ人の想像力の中に存在するステレオタイプなイメージとはほとんど共通点がない ことが多い。ラテンアメリカの音楽と若者文化』は、このような認識と現実の隔たりを埋めるべく、ラテンアメリカとアメリカ全土から寄稿者を集め、ラテンア メリカの数カ国とアメリカのラテンアメリカ人の間で、アイデンティティを主張するために音楽がどのように使われているかを検証する。自分たちの文化的ルー ツを失うことなく、ニューヨークの活気あるジャズ・シーンに参加したいと願うラテンアメリカの若手ミュージシャンから、同じ理由から母国語（ケチュア語） で歌うペルーのロッカー、共産主義後の社会的アイデンティティを構築するために音楽を利用するキューバの若者まで、本書は、国籍、地域、人種、民族、階 級、ジェンダー、移住などの観点から、音楽がさまざまな国や社会セクターの人々に、楽しみと自分たちが何者であるかを理解するためのツールの両方を提供す る複雑な方法に新たな光を当てる。ポピュラー音楽研究、民族音楽学、社会学、歴史学など、幅広い分野を駆使した『ラテンアメリカの音楽と若者文化』は、ラ テンアメリカの音楽、文化、社会に関心のあるすべての人にとって、示唆に富む一冊である。 物語的アイデンティティとポピュラー音楽 : 言語的言説と社会的実践 / パブロ・ヴィラ 過去のアイデンティティ：ギジェルモ・クライン、ミゲル・ゼノンとジャズの未来 / ジャイロ・モレノ サーフィンへの過ち：音楽、YouTube、若者文化におけるウェブの役割 / Rossana Reguillo キューバにおける音楽とポスト共産主義的主観性 / Rubén López Cano コロンビアの音楽シーンにおけるトロピポップの影響 / エクトル・フェルナンデス・ロヘステ フュージョン・ロックバンドと "新ペルー "のステージ / パトリシア・オリアート 政治活動家、プレイボーイ、ヒッピー：1960年代ブラジルの若者の音楽運動と象徴的表象 / マルコス・ナポリターノ プロ・ツール世代：ブラジルのポピュラー音楽におけるデジタル文化、活気、そして新たな真摯さ / フレデリック・モーン 過去から来た新しいタンゴ / Laura Cambra and Juan Raffo アルゼンチン・ロックにおける人生の軌跡と若返り / Adrián Pablo Fanjul |
| Musical nationalism refers to the use of musical ideas or motifs that are identified with a specific country, region, or ethnicity, such as folk tunes and melodies, rhythms, and harmonies inspired by them.[citation needed] | 音楽的ナショナリズムとは、特定の国や地域、民族に由来する音楽のアイ デアやモチーフ、例えば民謡やそれに触発されたメロディー、リズム、ハーモニーなどを用いることを指す[要出典]。 |
| History As a musical movement, nationalism emerged early in the 19th century in connection with political independence movements, and was characterized by an emphasis on national musical elements such as the use of folk songs, folk dances or rhythms, or on the adoption of nationalist subjects for operas, symphonic poems, or other forms of music.[1] As new nations were formed in Europe, nationalism in music was a reaction against the dominance of the mainstream European classical tradition as composers started to separate themselves from the standards set by Italian, French, and especially German traditionalists.[2][unreliable source] More precise considerations of the point of origin are a matter of some dispute. One view holds that it began with the war of liberation against Napoleon, leading to a receptive atmosphere in Germany for Weber's opera Der Freischütz (1821) and, later, Richard Wagner's epic dramas based on Teutonic legends. At around the same time, Poland's struggle for freedom from the three partitioning powers produced a nationalist spirit in the piano works and orchestral compositions such as Chopin's Fantasy on Polish Airs or Revolutionary Etude; slightly later Italy's aspiration to independence from Austria resonated in many of the operas of Giuseppe Verdi.[3] Countries or regions most commonly linked to musical nationalism include Russia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Scandinavia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Latin America and the United States. |
歴史 音楽運動としてのナショナリズムは、政治的な独立運動と関連して19世紀初頭に出現し、民謡、民族舞踊、リズムの使用などの民族音楽的要素の強調や、オペ ラ、交響詩、その他の音楽形式への民族主義的主題の採用が特徴であった[1]。 ヨーロッパで新しい国家が形成されるにつれて、音楽におけるナショナリズムは、作曲家がイタリア、フランス、特にドイツの伝統主義者によって設定された基 準から自らを切り離し始めたため、ヨーロッパの主流の古典的伝統の支配に対する反動であった[2][信頼できない出典]。 起源についてのより正確な考察については、いくつかの論争がある。ある見解では、ナポレオンとの解放戦争に端を発し、ウェーバーのオペラ『フライシュッ ツ』（1821年）や、後にリヒャルト・ワーグナーがチュートニックの伝説に基づく叙事詩劇をドイツで受容する雰囲気が生まれたとされる。同じ頃、ポーラ ンドでは、3つの分割国家からの自由を求める闘争が、ショパンの「ポーランド風幻想曲」や「革命のエチュード」のようなピアノ作品や管弦楽曲の中にナショ ナリズム的な精神を生み出した。 |
| Ethnomusicological perspective Ethnomusicological inquiries frequently involve a focus on the relationship between music and nationalist movements across the world, necessarily following the emergence of the modern nation-state as a consequence of globalization and its associated ideals, in contrast to a pre-imperialist world,[4] Modern studies of instances of music used in nationalist movements include Thomas Turino's research of Zimbabwe's independence movement of the 1970s and 80s. ZANU nationalists and their ZANLA guerrillas used political songs as a means for engaging a wider variety of socioeconomic classes; traditional Shona cultural practices, including music, were cited as areas of common ground.[5] Revolutionary leader Robert Mugabe formed the Youth League, which regularly organized and performed tribal dances as part of party meetings. The Youth League utilized pre-colonial African tribal music through association with the independence movement to ignite popular desire for a return to pre-colonial African rule.[6] However, Turino also explains that "cosmopolitan" musical styles as well as traditional music intersect to ultimately define national Zimbabwean music.[7] Other research has focused on recording and broadcasting technology as conducive to the dissemination of nationalist ideals. In early twentieth century Afghanistan, music played on Afghan radio blended Hindustani, Persian, Pashtun, and Tadjik traditions into a single national style, blurring ethnic lines at the behest of nationalist "ideologues." Around the same time, the nationalist Turkish state failed in their attempt to make Turkey a "Western" nation by broadcasting European classical music to rural areas when these areas instead simply tuned in to Egyptian radio.[8] Modern perspectives and critiques According to some authors, musical nationalism involves the appropriation of music necessarily originating from distinct ethnic, cultural, and class hierarchies for the express purpose of furthering the political goals of nationalist movements. Postmodernist critiques of musical nationalism regard ethnicity in terms of opposition and relativities, especially as it relates to the dominant culture.[9] As ethnomusicology moves in step with anthropology and other disciplines' trends to "decolonize" their respective fields, recent research surrounding the role of music in nationalist movements tends to surface in ethnomusicologists' now essential tradition of long-term field research. Katherine Hagedorn's account of post-revolutionary Cuban national music, compiled after repeated stays in the country in the 1990s, concludes that the government's designation of Afro-Cuban music and dance traditions as folklore and dramatized national theater performances of the tradition for the sake of theatrics is harmful to the tradition's religious legitimacy.[10] Identity and authenticity Numerous analysis inside and outside the ethnomusicological discipline finds that music contributes significantly to perceptions of national identity. Peter Wade argues that the amorphous, fluid nature of music allows for similar music to constitute aspects of differing and even contrasting identities.[11] As an example, Wade points to Colombia's specific nationalist music identity originating from its position on the Caribbean Sea. As modes of globalization penetrated the country, Colombians began to consume increasingly diverse types of music, which set the stage for Carlos Vives's 1993 album featuring modernized versions of vallenato songs from the 1930s from the Caribbean coastal region.[12] World beat can be considered contrary to nationalism, designed to appeal to a more global audience by mixing styles of disparate cultures. This may compromise cultural authenticity while commodifying cultural tradition.[13] (see Ethnomusicology#Globalization) |
民族音楽学の視点 民族音楽学的な研究は、帝国主義以前の世界とは対照的に、グローバリゼーションとそれに伴う理想の結果として近代国民国家が出現した後、必然的に世界中の民族主義運動と音楽の関係に焦点を当てることが多い[4]。 ナショナリズム運動における音楽の使用例に関する現代的な研究としては、1970年代から80年代にかけてのジンバブエ独立運動に関するトーマス・トゥ リーノの研究がある。ZANUナショナリストとそのZANLAゲリラは、より多様な社会経済階層を巻き込む手段として政治的な歌を使用した。音楽を含む ショナ族の伝統的な文化的慣習は、共通基盤の領域として挙げられていた[5]。革命指導者ロバート・ムガベは青年同盟を結成し、党の会合の一環として定期 的に部族舞踊を組織し、披露した。青年同盟は独立運動との関連を通じて植民地以前のアフリカの部族音楽を利用し、植民地以前のアフリカの支配への回帰を求 める民衆の願望に火をつけた[6]。しかしトゥリノは、伝統音楽だけでなく「コスモポリタン」な音楽スタイルもまた、最終的にジンバブエの国民的音楽を定 義するために交錯しているとも説明している[7]。 他の研究では、ナショナリズムの理想を広めるのに役立つ録音・放送技術に焦点が当てられている。20世紀初頭のアフガニスタンでは、アフガニスタンのラジ オから流れる音楽は、ヒンドゥスターニー、ペルシャ、パシュトゥーン、タジクといった伝統音楽をひとつの民族的スタイルに融合させ、民族主義的な「イデオ ローグ」の要請によって民族の境界線を曖昧にした。同じ頃、ナショナリストのトルコ国家は、ヨーロッパのクラシック音楽を農村部に放送することでトルコを 「西洋」国家にしようとして失敗した。 現代の視点と批評 一部の著者によれば、音楽的ナショナリズムは、民族主義運動の政治的目標を推進するという明確な目的のために、異なる民族的、文化的、階級的ヒエラルキー に由来する音楽を必然的に流用するものである。音楽的ナショナリズムに対するポストモダニズムの批評は、エスニシティを対立と相対性の観点から、特に支配 的文化との関係において捉えている[9]。民族音楽学が人類学や他の学問分野の「脱植民地化」の傾向と歩調を合わせるように、ナショナリズム運動における 音楽の役割をめぐる最近の研究は、民族音楽学者が今や不可欠となった長期的なフィールド調査の伝統の中で表面化する傾向にある。1990年代にキューバに 何度も滞在し、革命後のキューバの民族音楽についてまとめたキャサリン・ハゲドホーン（Katherine Hagedorn）の記述によれば、政府がアフロ・キューバの音楽と舞踊の伝統をフォークロアとして指定し、演劇的な演出のためにその伝統を国民劇場で上 演することは、その伝統の宗教的正統性にとって有害であると結論づけている[10]。 アイデンティティと真正性 民族音楽学分野の内外で数多くの分析がなされているが、音楽は国民的アイデンティティの認識に大きく寄与している。ピーター・ウェイドは、音楽の不定形で 流動的な性質が、類似した音楽が異なる、さらには対照的なアイデンティティの側面を構成することを可能にしていると論じている[11]。グローバリゼー ションの様式がコロンビアに浸透するにつれて、コロンビア人はますます多様なタイプの音楽を消費するようになり、カルロス・ヴィヴェスが1930年代にカ リブ海沿岸地域で生まれたバジェナートの曲を現代風にアレンジしたアルバムを1993年に発表するきっかけとなった[12]。ワールド・ビートはナショナリズムとは相反するものであり、異なる文化のスタイルをミックスすることで、よりグローバルな聴衆にアピールするように設計されていると考えることができる。これは文化的伝統を商品化する一方で、文化的信憑性を損なう可能性がある[13]（民族音楽学#グローバリゼーションを参照）。 |
| Ethnomusicology and Globalization. Towards the end of the 20th century, the field of ethnomusicology had blossomed in American academia. With racial and ethnic demographics evolving rapidly in institutions around the country, the demand for a new type of curricula that focused on teaching students about cultural differences only grew stronger. Incorporating ethnomusicology into the American curriculum allows for students to explore other cultures, and it provides an open space for students with varying cultural backgrounds. Thankfully, recordings of music from around the world began to enter the Euro-American music industry because of the advancements made in technology and musical devices. In addition to these advancements, many scholars were receiving funding in order to go abroad and perform research following the end of the Cold War. This type of research allowed scholars to learn firsthand about cultures they aren't familiar with—including hearing testimonies about customs, observing social and cultural norms, and learning how to play the instruments from a culture.[180] Timothy Taylor discusses the arrival and development of new terminology in the face of globalization. The term "World Music" was developed and popularized as a way to categorize and sell "non-Western" music. The term "world music" began in the 1990s as a marketing term to classify and sell records from other parts of the world under a unified label. Different styles of this world music began making appearances on the Billboard charts, in Grammy Award nominations, and through participation of new immigrants looking to get involved as musicians and audience members. The Billboard Charts and the Grammy's came to be used as became a great indicator for trends happening in music and to let people know who and what is selling. The Billboard music charts can be thought of as a marker of day-to-day activities of the music industry, and the Grammy awards can be thought of as an indicator of what sells and excels.[181] The term "world beat" was also employed in the 90s to refer specifically to pop music, but it has fallen out of use.[182] The issue that these terms present is that they perpetuate an "us" vs. "them" dichotomy, effectively "othering" and combining musical categories outside of the Western tradition for the sake of marketing.[118] Turino proposes the use of the term "cosmopolitanism" rather than "globalization" to refer to contact between world musical cultures, since this term suggests a more equitable sharing of music traditions and acknowledges that multiple cultures can productively share influence and ownership of particular musical styles.[183] Another relevant concept is glocalization, and a typology for how this phenomenon impacts music (called "Glocal BAG model") is proposed in the book Music Glocalization.[184] The issue of appropriation has come to the forefront in discussions of music's globalization, since many Western European and North American artists have participated in "revitalization through appropriation," claiming sounds and techniques from other cultures as their own and adding them to their work without properly crediting the origins of this music.[185] Steven Feld explores this issue further, putting it in the context of colonialism: admiration alone of another culture's music does not constitute appropriation, but in combination with power and domination (economic or otherwise), insufficient value is placed on the music's origin and appropriation has taken place. If the originators of a piece of music are given due credit and recognition, this problem can be avoided.[119] Feld criticizes the claim to ownership of appropriated music through his examination of Paul Simon's collaboration with South African musicians during the recording of his Graceland album. Simon paid the South African musicians for their work, but he was given all of the legal rights to the music. Although it was characterized by what seems to be fair compensation and mutual respect, Feld suggests that Simon should not be able to claim complete ownership of the music.[186] Feld holds the music industry accountable for this phenomenon, because the system gives legal and artistic credit to major contract artists, who hire musicians like "wage laborers" due to how little they were paid or credit they were given. This system rewards the creativity of bringing the musical components of a song together, rather than rewarding the actual creators of the music. As globalization continues, this system allows capitalist cultures to absorb and appropriate other musical cultures while receiving full credit for its musical arrangement.[186] Feld also discusses the subjective nature of appropriation, and how society's evaluation of each case determines the severity of the offense. When American singer James Brown borrowed African rhythms, and when the African musician Fela Kuti borrowed elements of style from James Brown, their common roots of culture made the connection more acceptable to society. However, when the Talking Heads borrow style from James Brown, the distancing between the artist and the appropriated music is more overt to the public eye, and the instance becomes more controversial from an ethical standpoint.[186] Thus, the issue of cycling Afro-Americanization and Africanization in Afro-American/African musical material and ideas is embedded in "power and control because of the nature of record companies and their cultivation of an international pop music elite with the power to sell enormous numbers of recordings."[187] Gibb Schreffler[188] also examines globalization and diaspora through the lens of Punjabi pop music.[189] Schreffler's writing on bhangra music is a commentary on the dissemination of music and its physical movement. As he suggests, the function and reception of Punjabi music changed drastically as increasing migration and globalization catalyzed the need for a cohesive Punjabi identity, emerging "as a stopgap during a period that was marked by the combination of large-scale experiences of separation from the homeland with as yet poor communication channels."[190] In the 1930s, before liberation from British colonial rule, music that carried the explicit "Punjabi" label primarily had the function of regional entertainment. In contrast, Punjabi music of the 1940s and 50s coincided with a wave of Punjabi nationalism that replaced regionalist ideals of earlier times. The music began to form a particular genteel identity in the 1960s that was accessible even to Punjabi expatriates. During the 1970s and 80s, Punjabi pop music began to adhere aesthetically to more cosmopolitan tastes, often overshadowing music that reflected a truly authentic Punjabi identity. Soon after, the geographic and cultural locality of Punjabi pop became a prevalent theme, reflecting a strong relationship to the globalization of widespread preferences. Schreffler explains this shift in the role of Punjabi pop in terms of different worlds of performance: amateur, professional, sacred, art, and mediated. These worlds are primarily defined by the act and function of the musical act, and each is a type of marked activity that influences how the musical act is perceived and the social norms and restrictions to which it is subject.[191] Punjabi popular music falls into the mediated world due to globalization and the dissemination of commercial music separating performance from its immediate context. Thus, Punjabi popular music eventually "evolved to neatly represent certain dualities that are considered to characterize Punjabi identity: East/West, guardians of tradition/embracers of new technology, local/diaspora."[192] In some instances, different groups of people in a culture rely on the globalization of music as a way to sustain themselves and their own culture. For example, author, scholar, and professor in the Department of Black Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, George Lipsitz analyzes how the fusion of global cultures play out on American soil through his study of Mexican American culture in Los Angeles. Lipsitz unpacks a lot of cultural issues found within the Mexican American communities during the late 1900s by answering a question Octavio Paz poses on the whereabouts of the Los Angeles Mexican culture.[193] Octavio Paz, a Mexican poet and diplomat, once visited Los Angeles and noted that the culture of Mexico seems to float around the city. The culture never quite exists nor does it seem to vanish. Some of the manifestations of the Mexican-American culture in Los Angeles can be found in what Lipsitz called a "historical bloc". This historical bloc refers to a group of different affinity groups that relate to each other through "counter-hegemonic".[193] The groups bond over their bifocal existence in between spaces, their juxtaposition of multiple realities, and their families of resemblance. Particularly in Chicano music, the musicians in this culture were strongly encouraged to take on an identity separate from themselves, if they wanted to achieve success in the world. Success might look different depending on the artists. One form of success might be selling tons of record while another form of success might be receiving respect from Anglo-American as real contributors to the "masterpieces" of music. This was definitely not an easy task to achieve, and often required some extra work. For example, Lipsitz writes about the first successful Los Angeles Chicano rock-and-roll songs and what the band members had to do to in order to achieve. The Don Tostino's Band reflected one how difficult it was for them to present Chicano music while not losing their identity. A band member stated that they wanted to play Chicano music instead of looking like clowns. This was a response to their audience's initial expectation that the band would arrive on stage in sombreros, tropical outfits, and other stereotypes attributed to Chicano people.[193] Another example of globalization in music concerns cases of traditions that are officially recognized by UNESCO, or promoted by national governments, as cases of notable global heritage. In this way, local traditions are introduced to a global audience as something that is so important as to both represent a nation and be of relevance to all people everywhere.[194] |
民族音楽学とグローバリゼーション 20世紀も終わりに近づいた頃、民族音楽学という分野がアメリカの学界で花開いた。全米の教育機関で人種や民族の人口動態が急速に進化する中、文化の違い について学生に教えることに焦点を当てた、新しいタイプのカリキュラムに対する需要は高まる一方だった。アメリカのカリキュラムに民族音楽学を取り入れる ことで、学生は異文化を探求することができ、さまざまな文化的背景を持つ学生に開かれた場を提供することができる。ありがたいことに、技術や音楽機器の進 歩により、世界中の音楽の録音がヨーロッパ・アメリカの音楽業界に入り始めた。このような進歩に加え、冷戦終結後、多くの学者が海外に出て研究を行うため の資金援助を受けていた。このような研究により、学者たちは、習慣についての証言を聞いたり、社会的・文化的規範を観察したり、その文化の楽器の演奏方法 を学んだりするなど、馴染みのない文化について直接学ぶことができた[180]。 ティモシー・テイラーは、グローバリゼーションに直面した新しい用語の登場と発展について論じている。ワールド・ミュージック」という用語は、「非西洋的 な」音楽を分類し、販売する方法として開発され、普及した。ワールド・ミュージック」という言葉は、1990年代に、世界の他の地域のレコードを分類し、 統一されたレーベルの下で販売するためのマーケティング用語として始まった。このワールド・ミュージックのさまざまなスタイルが、ビルボード・チャートや グラミー賞のノミネートに登場するようになり、ミュージシャンや観客として参加しようとする新しい移民の参加も見られるようになった。ビルボードチャート とグラミー賞は、音楽界で起こっているトレンドを知るための大きな指標となり、誰が、そして何が売れているのかを人々に知らせるために使われるようになっ た。ビルボード音楽チャートは、音楽業界の日々の活動の指標と考えることができ、グラミー賞は、何が売れているか、何が優れているかの指標と考えることが できる[181]。「ワールド・ビート」という用語も、90年代には特にポップ・ミュージックを指すために使われていたが、今では使われなくなっている [182]。 トゥリーノは世界の音楽文化間の接触について「グローバリゼーション」ではなく「コスモポリタニズム」という用語を使うことを提案している。この用語は音 楽の伝統をより公平に共有することを示唆しており、複数の文化が特定の音楽スタイルの影響力や所有権を生産的に共有できることを認めているからである [183]。 多くの西欧や北米のアーティストが「アプロプリエーションによる活性化」に参加し、他文化の音や技法を自分たちのものだと主張し、その音楽の起源を適切に クレジットすることなく作品に追加しているためである[185]。 [185］スティーヴン・フェルドは、この問題を植民地主義の文脈に当てはめて、さらに掘り下げている。他文化の音楽に感心するだけでは流用にはならない が、権力や支配（経済的なものであれ、そうでないものであれ）と結びつくことで、音楽の起源に十分な価値が置かれなくなり、流用が起こる。音楽の創始者に 正当なクレジットと認識が与えられていれば、この問題は回避できる[119]。 フェルドは、ポール・サイモンがアルバム『グレイスランド』のレコーディングにおいて南アフリカのミュージシャンとコラボレートしたことを検証すること で、流用された音楽の所有権を主張することを批判している。サイモンは南アフリカのミュージシャンに報酬を支払ったが、音楽の法的権利はすべて彼に与えら れた。それは公正な報酬と相互尊重のように見えるが、サイモンは音楽の完全な所有権を主張すべきではないとフェルドは示唆している。このシステムは、楽曲 の実際の制作者に報酬を与えるのではなく、楽曲の音楽的構成要素をまとめる創造性に報酬を与えるものだ。グローバリゼーションが進むにつれて、このシステ ムによって資本主義文化圏は他の音楽文化を吸収し、流用することができるようになり、その一方で、その音楽的アレンジメントに対する信用を完全に得ること ができるようになった[186]。 フェルドはまた、流用の主観的な性質と、それぞれのケースに対する社会の評価がどのように犯罪の重大性を決定するかについても論じている。アメリカ人シン ガーのジェームス・ブラウンがアフリカのリズムを借用したとき、そしてアフリカ人ミュージシャンのフェラ・クティがジェームス・ブラウンからスタイルの要 素を借用したとき、彼らの文化のルーツが共通であるため、そのつながりは社会により受け入れられやすくなった。しかし、トーキング・ヘッズがジェームス・ ブラウンからスタイルを借用するとき、アーティストと流用された音楽との間の距離感は世間の目に対してよりあからさまになり、その事例は倫理的な観点から より議論を呼ぶことになる[186]。したがって、アフロ＝アメリカン／アフリカン音楽の素材や思想におけるアフロ＝アメリカ化とアフリカ化の循環の問題 は、「レコード会社の性質と、膨大な数のレコードを販売する力を持つ国際的なポップ・ミュージック・エリートの育成のために、権力と支配」に埋め込まれて いる[187]。 ギブ・シュレフラー[188]もまた、パンジャビ・ポップ・ミュージックのレンズを通してグローバリゼーションとディアスポラについて考察している [189]。彼が示唆するように、パンジャブ音楽の機能と受容は、移民の増加とグローバリゼーションがパンジャブのまとまったアイデンティティの必要性を 触媒として、「祖国からの分離という大規模な経験と、まだ貧弱なコミュニケーション・チャンネルが組み合わさった時期に、その場しのぎとして出現した」 [190]パンジャブ音楽の機能と受容は劇的に変化した。対照的に、1940年代と50年代のパンジャブ音楽は、それまでの地域主義的な理想に取って代わ るパンジャブ民族主義の波と重なった。パンジャブ音楽は、1960年代には、パンジャブ人駐在員にとっても親しみやすい、特別に上品なアイデンティティを 形成し始めた。 1970年代から80年代にかけて、パンジャビ・ポップ・ミュージックは、よりコスモポリタンな嗜好を美学として取り入れるようになり、真にパンジャビ人 としてのアイデンティティを反映した音楽は影を潜めるようになった。やがて、パンジャブ・ポップスの地理的・文化的な地域性は、広く浸透した嗜好のグロー バル化との強い関係を反映し、一般的なテーマとなった。シュレフラーは、パンジャブ・ポップの役割のこの変化を、アマチュア、プロフェッショナル、神聖、 芸術、媒介といったさまざまなパフォーマンスの世界という観点から説明している。これらの世界は、主に音楽行為の行為と機能によって定義され、それぞれ が、音楽行為がどのように知覚されるか、また、音楽行為が受ける社会的規範や制約に影響を与える、特徴的な活動の一種である[191]。パンジャブ・ポ ピュラー音楽は、グローバリゼーションと商業音楽の普及によって、演奏がその直接的な文脈から切り離され、媒介された世界に入る。こうして、パンジャブ・ ポピュラー音楽はやがて「パンジャブ人のアイデンティティを特徴付けるとされるある種の二面性をきちんと表すように進化した」： 東洋／西洋、伝統の守護者／新しいテクノロジーの受容者、ローカル／ディアスポラ」[192]。 ある文化圏の異なるグループの人々が、自分たち自身と自分たちの文化を維持する方法として、音楽のグローバル化に依存している場合もある。例えば、カリ フォルニア大学サンタバーバラ校の黒人研究学科の教授であり、作家、学者であるジョージ・リプシッツは、ロサンゼルスのメキシコ系アメリカ人文化の研究を 通して、グローバルな文化の融合がアメリカ国内でどのように展開されているかを分析している。リプシッツは、ロサンゼルスのメキシコ文化の行方についてオ クタビオ・パスが投げかけた問いに答えることで、1900年代後半のメキシコ系アメリカ人コミュニティで見られた多くの文化的問題を解き明かしている。メ キシコの文化はロサンゼルスに浮遊しているようだと。ロサンゼルスにおけるメキシコ系アメリカ人文化の表れのいくつかは、リプシッツが「歴史的ブロック」 と呼ぶものの中に見出すことができる。このヒストリカル・ブロックとは、「カウンターヘゲモニー」を通じて互いに関係しあう、異なる親和グループのグルー プのことを指す[193]。このグループは、空間の狭間にある二重焦点的な存在、複数の現実の並置、そして似通った家族をめぐって結びついている。 特にチカーノ音楽において、この文化圏のミュージシャンたちは、世間での成功を望むのであれば、自分たちとは別のアイデンティティを持つことを強く奨励さ れた。成功の形はアーティストによって異なるかもしれない。ある成功の形は、大量のレコードを売ることかもしれないし、別の成功の形は、音楽の「傑作」の 真の貢献者として英米人から尊敬を受けることかもしれない。これを達成するのは簡単なことではなく、多くの場合、特別な努力が必要だった。例えば、リプ シッツはロサンゼルスのチカーノ・ロックンロールで最初に成功した曲と、そのためにバンドメンバーがしなければならなかったことについて書いている。ド ン・トスティーノ・バンドは、自分たちのアイデンティティを失わず、チカーノ音楽を提示することがいかに困難であったかを振り返っている。あるバンド・メ ンバーは、ピエロのように見せるのではなく、チカーノの音楽を演奏したいと述べた。これは、バンドがソンブレロやトロピカルな衣装、その他チカーノの人々 に起因するステレオタイプを身にまとってステージに登場するのではないかという聴衆の最初の期待に対する反応だった[193]。 音楽におけるグローバリゼーションのもう一つの例は、ユネスコによって公式に認められたり、各国政府によって注目すべき世界遺産の事例として推進されたり する伝統の事例に関するものである。このようにして、地元の伝統は、国を代表するものであると同時に、世界中のすべての人々に関連するものとして、非常に 重要なものとして世界中の聴衆に紹介される[194]。 |
| Belgium Henri Vieuxtemps Henri Vieuxtemps (1820 - 1881) was a composer and violinist. Guillaume Lekeu Guillaume Lekeu (1870 - 1894) was a composer who studied with Cesar Franck and Vincent d'Indy. Brazil Carlos Gomes The most representative composer of Brazilian romanticism, Carlos Gomes (1836–1896) used several references from the country's folk music and traditional themes, chiefly in his opera Il Guarany (1870). Heitor Villa-Lobos Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) traveled extensively throughout Brazil in his youth and recorded folksongs and tunes that he later used in his series Bachianas Brasileiras[citation needed] and all of his Chôros[citation needed] (amongst them, his Chôros No. 10, subtitled Rasga o coração after the song with words by Catulo da Paixão Cearense and music by Anacleto de Madeiros, which Villa-Lobos quotes in the second half of this choral-orchestral piece, which employs native percussion). Francisco Mignone Francisco Mignone (1897–1986) incorporated folk rhythms and instruments into his suites Fantasias Brasileiras nos.1–4 (1929–1936), his 12 Brazilian Waltzes (1968–1979), Congada (1921) and Babaloxá (1936), besides composing ballets based on major literary works from Brazilian literature. Canada Joseph Quesnel Joseph Quesnel (1746 - 1809) was a French Canadian composer. He wrote two operas, Colas et Colinette and Lucas et Cécile, the first of their kind in North America. Czech Republic Bedřich Smetana Bedřich Smetana (1824–1884) pioneered the development of a musical style that became closely identified with his country's aspirations to independent statehood. He is widely regarded in his homeland as the father of Czech music. He is best known for the symphonic cycle Má vlast ("My Homeland"), which portrays the history, legends, and landscape of his native land, and for his opera The Bartered Bride. Antonín Dvořák After Smetana, Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) was the second Czech composer to achieve worldwide recognition. Following Smetana's nationalist example, Dvořák frequently employed aspects, specifically rhythms, of the folk music of Moravia and his native Bohemia. Dvořák's own style creates a national idiom by blending elements of the classical symphonic tradition and extraneous popular musical traditions, absorbing folk influences and finding effective ways of using them. Dvořák also wrote nine operas, which, other than his first, have librettos in Czech and were intended to convey Czech national spirit, as were some of his choral works. Leoš Janáček Leoš Janáček (1854–1928) was a Czech composer, musical theorist, folklorist, publicist and teacher, best known for his operas and his Sinfonietta. Bohuslav Martinů Bohuslav Martinů (1890–1959) is compared with Prokofiev and Bartók in his innovative incorporation of Central European ethnomusicology into his music.[citation needed] He continued to use Bohemian and Moravian folk melodies throughout his oeuvre, usually nursery rhymes—for instance in Otvírání studánek ("The Opening of the Wells"). Denmark Niels Gade Niels Gade (1817–1890) was a Danish composer, conductor, violinist, organist and teacher. Carl Nielsen Carl Nielsen (1865–1931) was a Danish composer, conductor and violinist. Finland Jean Sibelius Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) had strong patriotic feelings for Finland. He composed Finlandia and the Karelia Suite, both of which emulate the rough culture and folk music of Finland. Both works also have nationalist programmatic elements; for instance, Finlandia describes the struggle of the Finnish people in the early 20th century.[14] France The Société nationale de musique was an important organisation in late 19th/early 20th century France to promote French music. Members included Romain Bussine, Camille Saint-Saëns, Alexis de Castillon, Théodore Dubois, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Fauré, César Franck, Jules Garcin, Ernest Guiraud, Jules Massenet, and Paul Taffanel. One of its goals was to further the cause of French music in contrast to the Germanic tradition.[15] Germany Carl Maria von Weber Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) was the composer the first German romantic opera, Der Freischütz. It was seen as a reaction to "years of war and foreign occupation" of the "repressive regimes of the post-Napoleonic German Confederation" that awakened "a sense of the Germans as a nation rooted in a shared language, folklore, history, and geography".[16] However, he also composed an English-language opera, Oberon. Richard Wagner Richard Wagner (1813–1883) composed many epic operas that were pro-German. He had been a supporter of the unification of Germany throughout his life. His anti-Semitic views have sometimes been seen as inspiring Adolf Hitler. Greece Nikolaos Mantzaros Nikolaos Mantzaros (1795 - 1872) was a composer and founder of the Ionian School of music. Pavlos Carrer Pavlos Carrer (1829 - 1896) was a composer and member of the Ionian School. Hungary Béla Bartók Béla Bartók (1881–1945) collaborated with fellow Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály to document Hungarian folk music, which they both incorporated in their musical pieces.[17] Zoltán Kodály Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) studied at the Academy of Music in Hungary and had an interest Hungarian folk songs and would often take prolonged trips to the Hungarian countryside to study the melodies which were then incorporated into his music compositions.[18] Italy Giuseppe Verdi Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901) instills a sense of nationalism into some of his music. This is evident in Nabucco with the lyrics, "Oh mia Patria sì bella e perduta" (Oh my Fatherland so beautiful and lost).[citation needed] "Viva VERDI" would also be written as a way to support the unification of Italy. This is an acronym for "Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d'Italia" (Long Live Victor Emmanuel King of Italy) in support of King Victor Emmanuel II.[citation needed] Ottorino Respighi Ottorino Respighi (1879–1936) was an Italian composer whose orchestral music unabashedly celebrates Italian culture.[citation needed] His Ancient Airs and Dances suites and The Birds suite were orchestral arrangements of early instrumental works by predominantly Italian composers, such as Bernardo Pasquini and Simone Molinaro. His Roman Trilogy depicts different scenes of the city: Fountains of Rome has movements illustrating different fountains in the city, Pines of Rome depicts different pine trees throughout the day, and Roman Festivals dedicates movements to different celebrations in Rome's history. Respighi also composed his Trittico Botticelliano based on paintings by the namesake Sandro Botticelli. Japan Rentarō Taki Rentarō Taki (1879 - 1903) was a Japanese pianist and composer. Mexico A nationalistic renascence in the arts was produced by the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1920. Álvaro Obregón's regime, inaugurated in 1921, provided a large budget for the Secretariat of Public Education, under the direction of José Vasconcelos, who commissioned paintings for public buildings from artists such as José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. As part of this ambitious programme, Vasconcelos also commissioned musical compositions on nationalistic themes. One of the first such works was the Aztec-themed ballet El fuego nuevo (The New Fire) by Carlos Chávez, composed in 1921 but not performed until 1928.[19] Manuel M. Ponce Manuel M. Ponce (1882–1948) was a composer, educator and scholar of Mexican music. Among his works are the lullaby La Rancherita (1907), Scherzino Mexicano (1909) composed in the style of sones and huapangos, Rapsodía Mexicana, No 1 (1911) based on the jarabe tapatío, and the romantic ballad Estrellita (1912). Carlos Chávez Carlos Chávez (1899–1978) was a Mexican composer, conductor, educator, journalist, and founder and director of the Mexican Symphonic Orchestra and the National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA). Some of his music was influenced by indigenous Mexican cultures. A period of nationalistic leanings initiated in 1921 with the Aztec-themed ballet El fuego nuevo (The New Fire), followed by a second ballet, Los cuatro soles (The Four Suns), in 1925. Netherlands Bernard Zweers Bernard Zweers (1854–1924) was a Dutch composer, he strived to develop a specifically Dutch brand of music, free from foreign influence. For instance, his vocal music only employs Dutch-language texts, and when it has a programme, that is frequently inspired by Dutch themes: Rembrandt, Vondel's Gijsbrecht van Aemstel, Dutch landscapes, and so forth. His aim was the greater good of Dutch art, because "Never will art get a foothold with a people, when it uses a foreign language in song, or when it takes in art by means of foreign tongues." His Third Symphony (1887–1889) is regarded as a milestone in the development of Dutch music, combining folk tunes with a lyrical description of Dutch landscapes.[citation needed] Norway Edvard Grieg Edvard Grieg (1843–1907) was an important Romantic era composer whose music helped establish a Norwegian national identity.[20] Poland Jan Stefani Jan Stefani [pl] (1746–1829) composed the Singspiel Cud mniemany, czyli Krakowiacy i górali (The Supposed Miracle, or the Cracovians and the Highlanders), which premiered in 1794 and contains krakowiaks, polonaises, and mazurkas that were adopted as if they were Polish folk music by audiences at the 1816 revival with new music by Karol Kurpiński.[21] The suggestive lyrics of many of the songs could scarcely have been interpreted by the Polish audiences at the verge of the outbreak of the Kościuszko Uprising as anything other than a call for revolution, national unity, and independence.[22] In this sense, despite his obscurity today, Stefani must be regarded as a precursor and founder of nineteenth-century musical nationalism. Frédéric Chopin See also: Frédéric Chopin § Polish identity Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) was one of the first composers to incorporate nationalistic elements into his compositions. Joseph Machlis states, "Poland's struggle for freedom from tsarist rule aroused the national poet in Poland. ... Examples of musical nationalism abound in the output of the romantic era. The folk idiom is prominent in the Mazurkas of Chopin".[23] His mazurkas and polonaises are particularly notable for their use of nationalistic rhythms. Moreover, "During World War II the Nazis forbade the playing of ... Chopin's Polonaises in Warsaw because of the powerful symbolism residing in these works."[24] Stanisław Moniuszko Stanisław Moniuszko (1819–1872) has become associated above all with the concept of a national style in opera. Moniuszko's opera and music as a whole is representative of 19th-century romanticism, given the extensive use by the composer of arias, recitatives and ensembles that feature strongly in his operas. The source of Moniuszko's melodies and rhythmic patterns often lies in Polish musical folklore. One of the most visibly Polish aspects of his music is in the forms he uses, including dances popular among upper classes such as polonaise and mazurka, and folk tunes and dances such as kujawiak and krakowiak. Henryk Wieniawski Henryk Wieniawski (1835–1880) was another important composer using Polish folk melodies—he wrote several mazurkas for solo violin and piano accompaniment, one of which being the popular "Obertass" in G major. Ignacy Jan Paderewski Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860–1941) was a Polish pianist, composer, diplomat, and spokesman for Polish independence, who also became Prime Minister of the newly independent Poland in 1919. He wrote several pieces inspired by Polish folk music, such as polonaises and mazurkas for solo piano or his Polish Fantasy for piano and orchestra. His last work, the monumental Symphony in B minor "Polonia", is a programme symphony representing the Polish struggle for independence in the early 20th century. Romania George Enescu George Enescu (1881–1955) is considered Romania's most important composer.[25] Amongst his best-known compositions are his two Romanian Rhapsodies and his Violin Sonata No. 3 (in Romanian Folk Style), Op. 25. Russia Mikhail Glinka Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) was a Russian composer and founder of the Russian nationalist school.[26] The Five The Five (also known as the Mighty Handful and the New Russian School) were five prominent 19th-century Russian composers who worked together to create a distinct Russian classical music: Mily Balakirev (the leader), César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Borodin. Spain Isaac Albéniz Isaac Albéniz (1860–1909) was a Spanish virtuoso pianist, composer, and conductor. Enrique Granados Enrique Granados (1867–1916) composed his work Goyescas (1911) based on the etchings of the Spanish painter, Goya.[clarification needed] Also of a national style are his Danzas españolas and his first opera María del Carmen.[citation needed] Manuel de Falla Manuel de Falla (1876–1946) was a Spanish composer. Joaquín Turina Joaquín Turina (1882–1949) was a Spanish composer. Joaquín Rodrigo Joaquín Rodrigo (1901–1999) was a Spanish composer and a virtuoso pianist. Sweden Hugo Alfvén Hugo Alfvén (1872–1960) studied at the music conservatory in his hometown, Stockholm. In addition to being a violinist, conductor, and composer, he was also a painter. He is perhaps best known for his five symphonies and three Swedish Rhapsodies.[citation needed] Ukraine In Ukraine the term "Music nationalism" (Ukrainian: музичний націоналізм) was coined by Stanyslav Lyudkevych in 1905.[27] The article under this title is devoted to Mykola Lysenko who is considered to be the father of Ukrainian classical music. Ludkevych concludes that Lysenko's nationalism was inspired by those of Glinka in Russian music, though western tradition, particularly German, is still significant in his music, especially instrumental. V. Hrabovsky assumes that Stanyslav Lyudkevych himself could be considered as significant nationalistic composer and musicologist thanks to his numerous composition under Ukraine-devoted titles as well as numerous papers devoted to use of Ukrainian folk songs and poetry in Ukrainian classical music.[citation needed] Inspiration by Ukrainian folklore could be observed even earlier, particularly in compositions by Maxim Berezovsky (1745–1777),[28] Dmitry Bortniansky (1751–1825),[29] and Artemy Vedel (1767–1808).[30] Semen Hulak-Artemovsky (1813–1873) is considered to be the author of the first Ukrainian opera (Zaporozhets za Dunayem, premièred in 1863). Lysenko's traditions were continued by, among others, Kyrylo Stetsenko (1882–1922), Mykola Leontovych (1877–1921), Yakiv Stepovy (1883–1921), Alexander Koshetz (1877–1944), and later, Levko Revutsky (1889–1977). At the same time the term "nationalism" is not used in Ukrainian musicology (see for example (Yutsevych 2009), where such term is missing). Moreover, the article "Music Nationalism" by Ludkevych was prohibited in the USSR[27] and was not widely known until its publication in 1999.[31] United Kingdom Joseph Parry Joseph Parry (1841–1903) was born in Wales, but moved to the United States as a child. In his adulthood, he traveled between Wales and America, and performed Welsh songs and glees with Welsh texts in recitals. He composed the first Welsh opera, Blodwen, in 1878.[32] Alexander Mackenzie Alexander Mackenzie (1847–1935) wrote a Highland Ballad for violin and orchestra (1893), and the Scottish Concerto for piano and orchestra (1897). He also composed the Canadian Rhapsody. In his life, MacKenzie witnessed both the survivals of Jacobite culture, and the Red Clydeside Era. His music is heavily influenced by Jacobite art.[33] Charles Villiers Stanford Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924) wrote five Irish Rhapsodies (1901–1914). He published volumes of Irish folk song arrangements, and his third symphony is titled the Irish symphony. In addition to being heavily influenced by Irish culture and folk music, he was particularly influenced by Johannes Brahms.[34] Edward Elgar Edward Elgar (1857–1934) is best known for the Pomp and Circumstance Marches, the most famous of which is played every year as part of the "Last Night of the Proms" concert.[clarification needed][35] Ralph Vaughan Williams Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) collected, published, and arranged many folksongs from across the country, and wrote many pieces, large and small scale, based on folk melodies, such as the Fantasia on Greensleeves and the Five Variants on "Dives and Lazarus. Vaughan Williams helped define musical nationalism, writing that "The art of music above all the other arts is the expression of the soul of a nation."[36] United States Edward MacDowell Edward MacDowell (1860–1908)'s Woodland Sketches, Op. 51 (1896) consists of ten short piano pieces bearing titles referring to the American landscape. In this way, they make a claim to MacDowell's identity as an American composer.[37] Henry Cowell Henry Cowell (1897–1965) was an American avant-garde composer who wrote music inspired by American folk tunes. Horatio Parker Horatio Parker (1863–1919) was an American composer, organist and teacher. Charles Ives Charles Ives (1874–1954) was an American modernist composer, being one of the first American composers of international renown. He frequently employed quotation of popular American songs and referenced the holidays and landscapes of New England, such as in Three Places in New England, Central Park in the Dark, and A Symphony: New England Holidays. Aaron Copland Ironically, Aaron Copland (1900–1990) composed "Mexican" music such as El Salón México in addition to his American nationalist works.[38] |
★各国事例（ここでは、メキシコの事例だけあげる） メキシコ 1910年から1920年にかけてのメキシコ革命によって、芸術におけるナショナリズムの再興がもたらされた。1921年に発足したアルバロ・オブレゴン 政権は、ホセ・バスコンセロス率いる公共教育事務局に多額の予算を提供し、バスコンセロスはホセ・クレメンテ・オロスコ、ディエゴ・リベラ、ダビド・アル ファロ・シケイロスといった芸術家たちに公共建築物のための絵画を依頼した。この野心的なプログラムの一環として、バスコンセロスは民族主義的なテーマで 作曲も依頼した。そのような最初の作品のひとつが、カルロス・チャベスによるアステカをテーマにしたバレエ作品『El fuego nuevo（新しい火）』で、1921年に作曲されたが、1928年まで上演されなかった[19]。 マヌエル・M・ポンセ（Manuel Ponce, 1882-1948） マヌエル・M・ポンセ（1882-1948）はメキシコ音楽の作曲家、教育者、研究者。彼の作品には、子守歌La Rancherita（1907年）、ソネとフアパンゴのスタイルで作曲されたScherzino Mexicano（1909年）、ハラベ・タパティオに基づくRapsodía Mexicana, No 1（1911年）、ロマンティックなバラードEstrellita（1912年）などがある。 カルロス・チャベス（Carlos Chávez, 1899-1978） カルロス・チャベス（1899-1978）は、メキシコの作曲家、指揮者、教育者、ジャーナリストであり、メキシコ交響楽団と国立芸術学院（INBA）の 創設者兼院長でもある。彼の音楽の中には、メキシコの土着文化の影響を受けたものもある。1921年、アステカをテーマにしたバレエ作品『エル・フエゴ・ヌエボ（新しい火）El fuego nuevo (The New Fire)』でナショナリズムに傾倒し、1925年には2作目のバレエ作品『ロス・クアトロ・ソレス（4つの太陽）Los cuatro soles (The Four Suns)』を発表。 |
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