開発研究用語集

Glossary of Development Studies

This simple diagram by Benedetto Bordone dating from 1528 is the first map of Japan printed in a Western manuscript, and draws on the written account of Marco Polo, as no European had visited Japan at the time.

池田光穂

外部経済性（Externality）

戦略的補完性（Strategic complements）「複数均衡が存在する状況下において、各経済主体から見た場合、現状維持を選択することが自己の利益が最大化している状態」
"In economics and game theory, the decisions of two or more players are called strategic complements if they mutually reinforce one another, and they are called strategic substitutes if they mutually offset one another. These terms were originally coined by Bulow, Geanakoplos, and Klemperer (1985).[1] To see what is meant by 'reinforce' or 'offset', consider a situation in which the players all have similar choices to make, as in the paper of Bulow et al., where the players are all imperfectly competitive firms that must each decide how much to produce. Then the production decisions are strategic complements if an increase in the production of one firm increases the marginal revenues of the others, because that gives the others an incentive to produce more too. This tends to be the case if there are sufficiently strong aggregate increasing returns to scale and/or the demand curves for the firms' products have a sufficiently low own-price elasticity. On the other hand, the production decisions are strategic substitutes if an increase in one firm's output decreases the marginal revenues of the others, giving them an incentive to produce less. According to Russell Cooper and Andrew John, strategic complementarity is the basic property underlying examples of multiple equilibria in coordination games.[2]" -Strategic complements.

Symmetric game
"Only 12 out of the 144 ordinally distinct 2x2 games are symmetric. However, many of the commonly studied 2x2 games are at least ordinally symmetric. The standard representations of chicken, the Prisoner's Dilemma, and the Stag hunt are all symmetric games. Formally, in order for a 2x2 game to be symmetric, its payoff matrix must conform to the schema pictured to the right. The requirements for a game to be ordinally symmetric are weaker, there it need only be the case that the ordinal ranking of the payoffs conform to the schema on the right."Symmetric game.

Economic growth
"Economic growth can be defined as the increase or improvement in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. Statisticians conventionally measure such growth as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or real GDP.[1] Growth is usually calculated in real terms – i.e., inflation-adjusted terms – to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the prices of goods produced. Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting.[2] Since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product (GDP), it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure. The economic growth-rates of countries are commonly compared[by whom?] using the ratio of the GDP to population (per-capita income).[3] The "rate of economic growth" refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time. This growth rate represents the trend in the average level of GDP over the period, and ignores any fluctuations in the GDP around this trend. Economists refer to an increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs (increased productivity of labor, of physical capital, of energy or of materials) as intensive growth. In contrast, GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use (increased population, for example, or new territory) counts as extensive growth.[4] Development of new goods and services also generates economic growth.[citation needed] As it so happens, in the U.S. about 60% of consumer spending in 2013 went on goods and services that did not exist in 1869.[5]"-Economic growth.

Big push model
"The big push model is a concept in development economics or welfare economics that emphasizes that a firm's decision whether to industrialize or not depends on its expectation of what other firms will do. It assumes economies of scale and oligopolistic market structure and explains when industrialization would happen. The originator of this theory was Paul Rosenstein-Rodan in 1943. Further contributions were made later on by Murphy, Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny in 1989. Analysis of this economic model ordinarily involves using game theory. The theory of the model emphasizes that underdeveloped countries require large amounts of investments to embark on the path of economic development from their present state of backwardness. This theory proposes that a 'bit by bit' investment programme will not impact the process of growth as much as is required for developing countries. In fact, injections of small quantities of investments will merely lead to a wastage of resources. Paul Rosenstein-Rodan approvingly quotes a Massachusetts Institute of Technology study in this regard, "There is a minimum level of resources that must be devoted to... a development programme if it is to have any chance of success. Launching a country into self-sustaining growth is a little like getting an airplane off the ground. There is a critical ground speed which must be passed before the craft can become airborne...."[1] Rosenstein-Rodan argued that the entire industry which is intended to be created should be treated and planned as a massive entity (a firm or trust). He supports this argument by stating that the social marginal product of an investment is always different from its private marginal product, so when a group of industries are planned together according to their social marginal products, the rate of growth of the economy is greater than it would have otherwise been.[2]"- Big push model.

「新しい成長理論」(New Growth Theory) 出典：「新しい成長理論」(New Growth Theory)について - 日本銀行（1991）
縦軸gは製品数の伸び；μ=0閉鎖経済、つまり市場の開放の度合い

★クリステンセン・イノベーションのジレンマ・解体新書

＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿

【あ】【い】【う】【え】【お】
【か】【き】【く】【け】【こ】
【さ】【し】【す】【せ】【そ】
【た】【ち】【つ】【て】【と】
【な】【に】【ぬ】【ね】【の】
【は】【ひ】【ふ】【へ】【ほ】
【ま】【み】【む】【め】【も】
【や】　　　【ゆ】　　　【よ】
【ら】【り】【る】【れ】【ろ】
【わ】【ゐ】　　　【ゑ】【を】
【ん】　貧困研究の文化人類学
＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿

応用人類学

【あ】

【い】

意識化　conscientization,conscientizacao

イネーブリング原則

イネーブルメント　enablement

インフォーマル・セクター

インフラストラクチャー（インフラ）

【う】

ウェルビーイング　well-being（→福祉、良き生活）

【え】

エイズ　AIDS（→HIV/AIDS）

エイチアイブイ　HIV/AIDS

ＨＤＩ

ＳＣＩ

ＭＤＧｓ

援助

　二国間援助

　戦略的援助

エンパワーメント

【お】

応用人類学

ＯＤＡ

オーナーシップ（当事者意識）

【か】

開発援助

開発における女性（WID）

外部効果

ガヴァナンス（→統治）

家計内資源配分　Intrahousehold resource allocation

潅漑（かんがい）

慣習

間接効果

間接費用（機会費用）

【き】

機会主義的行動

機会費用（→間接費用）

基礎的な潜在能力の剥奪

規範　norm

規模の経済性

協働　→シナジー（synergy）

【く】

クズネッツの逆Ｕ字仮説

クロスカントリー回帰

クロスカントリー分析

クロスセクション分析

グラミン銀行（バングラディシュ）　Grameen Bank

【け】

経済成長

ケイパビリティ（capability; 潜在能力）→人間にとっての真のケイパビリティとは？

ケイパビリティ・アプローチ

【こ】

公共財　public goods

構造調整

公的支援主導保障戦略

国際復興開発銀行（→世界銀行）　International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

互恵行為

互恵規範

コミュニティ

雇用

高成長理論

【さ】

在来金融

サステイナブル　→持続可能性

参加

参加型開発

【し】

ＧＤＩ　→ジェンダー開発指数

ジェンダーエンパワーメント測定

ジェンダー開発指数

ジェンダー指数

ジェンダーと開発

自己雇用機会

資産　assets

持続可能性

持続可能な生計　Sustainable Livelihood

シナジー

ジニ係数

死亡率

市民社会

市民社会度　civicness

社会参加

社会間接資本　overhead capital

社会資本を優先する発議　Social Capital Initiative

借款

習慣

重債務貧困国（HIPC）

純就学率　net enrollment ratio

女子死亡率

所得貧困

自立性　self-sustainability

新ＯＤＡ大綱［JICA 2003］

新開発戦略

人口保健調査

人的資本

信用制約　credit rationing

s信頼

【す】

スクリーニング

スピルオーバー効果 →スピルオーバーこうか

スラム

【せ】

生活水準指標調査（LSMS）

生計　livelihood

脆弱性　vulnerability

生存戦略

成長からの再分配

成長弾力性

成長媒介保障戦略

政府

政府開発援助（ODA）

セイフティ・ネット

『世界開発報告』

世界雇用会議

世界雇用プログラム

世界銀行　→国際復興開発銀行（IBRD）

世界銀行グループ　→国際復興開発銀行（IBRD）、ＩＤＡ（International Development Association）、ＩＦＣ（International Finance Corporation）、ＭＩＧＡ（Multinlateral Investment Guarantee Agency）、ＩＣＳＩＤ（International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes）

絶対的貧困

潜在能力　→ケイパビリティ

【そ】

相対的貧困

贈与

ソーシャルキャピタルイニシアチブ　→社会資本を優先する発議

粗就学率　gross enrollment ratio

【た】

ターゲット

ターゲティング手法

ＷＩＤ　→開発における女性

単一家計モデル　unitary household model

弾力性

【ち】

直接効果

直接的貧困層支援政策

【つ】

ツーギャップ・モデル

【て】

ＤＡＣ　→開発援助委員会

ＤＨＳ　→人口保健調査

適正技術

【と】

トリックル・ダウン　trickle down

統治　governance

【な】

内的拘束型ソーシャルキャピタル

【に】

二重経済

乳児死亡率　infant mortality rate

乳幼児死亡率　under five mortality rate

人間開発

人間開発指数　Human Development Index

人間的能力

認知的ソーシャル・キャピタル

【ぬ】

【ね】

ネットワーク

【の】

農地改革

能力

【は】

パートナーシップ

剥奪　deprivation

橋渡し型ソーシャル・キャピタル

働く農民

蝿取り紙効果　→フライペーパー効果

破壊的技術

【ひ】

ＰＲＳＰ　→貧困削減戦略文書

ＢＨＮ　→ベーシック・ヒューマン・ニーズ→人間の基本的諸要件

貧困ギャップ

貧困削減戦略文書

貧困指標

貧困者比率　head count ratio

貧困層に配慮した成長　Pro-Poor Growth

貧困ターゲティング・モデル

貧困の罠　poverty trap

貧困ライン

【ふ】

ファイナンシング・ギャップ

ファンジビリティ（流用可能性）

負の外部性

フライペーパー（蝿取り紙）効果

分権化

【へ】

ベーシック・ヒューマン・ニーズ　→人間の基本的諸要件

【ほ】

包括的開発フレームワーク

【ま】

マイクロクレジット（ファイナンス）

マイクロファイナンス

「マイクロファイナンス（小規模金融）とは、経済的資源の配分において不平等な取り扱いを受けている人々に小口の融資や貯蓄などのサービスを提供し、彼らが零細事業の運営に役立て、自立し、貧困から脱出することを目指す金融サービスです」マイクロファイナンスの仕組み（http://www.planetfinance.or.jp/microfinance/）より

【み】

緑の革命

ミレニアム開発目標　Millennium Development Goals, MDGs

ミント理論

【む】
【め】
【も】

モニタリング

【や】

【ゆ】
【よ】

幼児死亡率　childhood mortality rate

余剰のはけ口モデル

【ら】
【り】

リカードの罠　Richardian trap

履行強制　enforcement

リスク

流用可能性（ファンジビリティ）

【る】

ルール

【れ】

【ろ】

労働過剰経済

【わ】

ワークフェア

【ん】（→開発人類学・語彙集もあわせてご参照ください）
＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿
ＨＤＩ　人間開発指数

ＳＣＩ　社会資本を優先する発議（Social Capital Initiative）［World Bank 1996］

ＭＤＧｓ　ミレニアム開発目標

ＨＩＶ　ヒト免疫不全ウィルス

ＨＤＩ　人間開発指数（Human Development Index）

ＩＢＲＤ　International Bank for Reconstruction and Development　（→世界銀行）

ＬＳＭＳ　生活水準指標調査

ＯＤＡ　政府開発援助

ＷＩＤ　開発における女性（Women in Development）

ＧＤＩ　ジェンダー開発指数　Gender Development Index

ＧＥＭ　ジェンダー・エンパワメント測定　Gender Empowerment Measure

ＧＡＤ　ジェンダーと開発（Gender and Develpoment）

ＨＩＰＣ　重債務貧困国（Heavily Indebted Poor Country）

ＤＨＳ　人口保健調査（Demographic and Health Survey）

ＬＳＭＳ　生活水準指標調査（Living Standards Measurement Study）

ＤＡＣ　開発援助委員会

ＰＲＳＰ　貧困削減戦略文書（Poverty Reduction Srategy Paper）

ＢＨＮ　人間の基本的諸要件（Basic Human Needs）

【解説】

貧困研究の文化人類学

（１）貧困研究の社会状況：

　→〈多民族・多文化性〉：さまざま研究者（研究民族）、さまざまな概念（言語）、さまざまな実践（行動様式・モラル・エトス）

　→貧困研究者の同床異夢：貧困の定義をおこなうことは、その原因、生成過程、対策を含意することを意味する。

　→個別の対策が万能化する傾向：ある方法論の成功事例が一般化されやすい（理論負荷 theory-laden）。

　→貧困研究の政治経済学：中心的価値領域（経済学）から中範囲領域（国際政治・開発学・比較文化論）から周辺領域（ミクロ金融論・認知行動研究・参加型研究・文化人類学）まで、さまざまな研究助成とそれ以外の支援の形態があり、中心から周縁に補助団体の性格やそれらのエージェントが研究主体に期待することがらが異なる。

　→開発途上国の「先験的な瑕疵」理論：当該国の統治（「破綻国家」）・人権（「自由の抑圧」）・経済（「市場の失敗」）・社会・文化・地域・家庭・個人の行動が不調ないしは欠陥があることを前提にする（→途上国における貧困撲滅という前提から引き出される論理的帰結）［従属論、接合理論、世界システム論などからの批判］。

　→〈まず実践！のイデオロギー〉：はじめに援助ありきのシステムがあるので、理論的研究は、つねに事後的検証の形をとる傾向

　→批判的で過激な方法論の抑制：システムの全面的改廃（例：革命）などの選択肢は予め念慮されない。議論の中心は、社会の改造に関する技術論（＝改良主義）に修練する傾向があり、批判理論はつねに周縁化されている。

　→動態的社会（次々と新しい概念が登場し、消費されてゆく社会）：流行語（例：ＢＨＮ、持続可能性、マイクロファイナンス、エンパワメント、ケイパビリティ、参加型、貧困）

（２）ジャーゴン（領域内専門用語）の研究

（３）貧困研究領域の社会学・文化人類学史

（４）新・応用人類学

（５）先住民族と文化人類学

Copyleft, CC, Mitzub'ixi Quq Chi'j, 1996-2099

池田蛙　　授業蛙　　電脳蛙　　医人蛙　　

外部経済性（Externality）
戦略的補完性（Strategic complements）	「複数均衡が存在する状況下において、各経済主体から見た場合、現状維持を選択することが自己の利益が最大化している状態」 "In economics and game theory, the decisions of two or more players are called strategic complements if they mutually reinforce one another, and they are called strategic substitutes if they mutually offset one another. These terms were originally coined by Bulow, Geanakoplos, and Klemperer (1985).[1] To see what is meant by 'reinforce' or 'offset', consider a situation in which the players all have similar choices to make, as in the paper of Bulow et al., where the players are all imperfectly competitive firms that must each decide how much to produce. Then the production decisions are strategic complements if an increase in the production of one firm increases the marginal revenues of the others, because that gives the others an incentive to produce more too. This tends to be the case if there are sufficiently strong aggregate increasing returns to scale and/or the demand curves for the firms' products have a sufficiently low own-price elasticity. On the other hand, the production decisions are strategic substitutes if an increase in one firm's output decreases the marginal revenues of the others, giving them an incentive to produce less. According to Russell Cooper and Andrew John, strategic complementarity is the basic property underlying examples of multiple equilibria in coordination games.[2]" -Strategic complements.
Symmetric game	"Only 12 out of the 144 ordinally distinct 2x2 games are symmetric. However, many of the commonly studied 2x2 games are at least ordinally symmetric. The standard representations of chicken, the Prisoner's Dilemma, and the Stag hunt are all symmetric games. Formally, in order for a 2x2 game to be symmetric, its payoff matrix must conform to the schema pictured to the right. The requirements for a game to be ordinally symmetric are weaker, there it need only be the case that the ordinal ranking of the payoffs conform to the schema on the right."Symmetric game.
Economic growth	"Economic growth can be defined as the increase or improvement in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. Statisticians conventionally measure such growth as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or real GDP.[1] Growth is usually calculated in real terms – i.e., inflation-adjusted terms – to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the prices of goods produced. Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting.[2] Since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product (GDP), it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure. The economic growth-rates of countries are commonly compared[by whom?] using the ratio of the GDP to population (per-capita income).[3] The "rate of economic growth" refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time. This growth rate represents the trend in the average level of GDP over the period, and ignores any fluctuations in the GDP around this trend. Economists refer to an increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs (increased productivity of labor, of physical capital, of energy or of materials) as intensive growth. In contrast, GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use (increased population, for example, or new territory) counts as extensive growth.[4] Development of new goods and services also generates economic growth.[citation needed] As it so happens, in the U.S. about 60% of consumer spending in 2013 went on goods and services that did not exist in 1869.[5]"-Economic growth.
Big push model	"The big push model is a concept in development economics or welfare economics that emphasizes that a firm's decision whether to industrialize or not depends on its expectation of what other firms will do. It assumes economies of scale and oligopolistic market structure and explains when industrialization would happen. The originator of this theory was Paul Rosenstein-Rodan in 1943. Further contributions were made later on by Murphy, Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny in 1989. Analysis of this economic model ordinarily involves using game theory. The theory of the model emphasizes that underdeveloped countries require large amounts of investments to embark on the path of economic development from their present state of backwardness. This theory proposes that a 'bit by bit' investment programme will not impact the process of growth as much as is required for developing countries. In fact, injections of small quantities of investments will merely lead to a wastage of resources. Paul Rosenstein-Rodan approvingly quotes a Massachusetts Institute of Technology study in this regard, "There is a minimum level of resources that must be devoted to... a development programme if it is to have any chance of success. Launching a country into self-sustaining growth is a little like getting an airplane off the ground. There is a critical ground speed which must be passed before the craft can become airborne...."[1] Rosenstein-Rodan argued that the entire industry which is intended to be created should be treated and planned as a massive entity (a firm or trust). He supports this argument by stating that the social marginal product of an investment is always different from its private marginal product, so when a group of industries are planned together according to their social marginal products, the rate of growth of the economy is greater than it would have otherwise been.[2]"- Big push model.
「新しい成長理論」(New Growth Theory)	出典：「新しい成長理論」(New Growth Theory)について - 日本銀行（1991）縦軸gは製品数の伸び；μ=0閉鎖経済、つまり市場の開放の度合い