文化とパーソナリティ論

文化とパーソナリティ論

Culture and Personality School, 1930s-1940s

解説：池田光穂

人間の発達の概念を軸に、文化が個人のパーソナリティにどのような影響を与えるのかについての、比較文化と発達の理論をあわせもつ理論体系ないしはその研究枠組みを共有する学派を、文化とパーソナリティ学派（Culture and Personality School）という。表題にあるように、1930年代から1940年代の文化人類学および児童心理学、発達心理学に大きな影響を与えた。

その支配的な学者としては、下記に掲げるように、ラルフ・リントン、ルース・ベネディクト、マーガレット・ミード、クライド・クラックホーンなどの数多くの学者がいる。

詳しくは、心理人類学の流れ（Outline of development of Psychological Anthropology）を参考にしてください。

■Ralph Linton (1893-1953)

1939 -43年にAmerican Anthropologistの編集に従事する。　

パーソナリティを、社会構成員共通の「基本的パーソナリティ」と、その人間が属する分節化した下位集団の「身分的パーソナリティ」の２つに分ける。

Ralph Linton (27 February 1893 – 24 December 1953) was a respected American anthropologist of the mid-20th century, particularly remembered for his texts The Study of Man (1936) and The Tree of Culture (1955). One of Linton's major contributions to anthropology was defining a distinction between status and role.

Early life and education;

Linton was born into a family of Quaker restaurant entrepreneurs in Philadelphia in 1893 and entered Swarthmore College in 1911. He was an indifferent student and resisted his father's pressures to prepare himself for the life of a professional. He grew interested in archaeology after participating in a field school in the southwest and took a year off of his studies to participate in another archaeological excavation at Quiriguá in Guatemala. Having found a strong focus he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1915.[1] Although Linton became a prominent anthropologist, his graduate education took place largely at the periphery of the discipline. He attended the University of Pennsylvania, where he earned his master's degree studying with Frank Speck while undertaking additional archaeological field work in New Jersey and New Mexico.[1] He was admitted to a Ph.D. program at Columbia University thereafter, but did not become close to Franz Boas, the doyen of anthropology in that era. When America entered World War I, Linton enlisted and served in France during 1917–1919 with Battery D, 149th Field Artillery, 42nd (Rainbow) Division. Linton served as a corporal and saw battle at the trenches, experiencing first hand a German gas attack. Linton's military experience would be a major influence on his subsequent work. One of his first published articles was "Totemism and the A.E.F." (Published in American Anthropologist vol. 26:294–300)", in which he argued that the way in which military units often identified with their symbols could be considered a kind of totemism.[2] His military fervor probably did not do anything to improve his relationship with the pacifist Franz Boas, who abhorred all displays of nationalism or jingoism. An anecdote has it that Linton was rebuked by Boas when he appeared in class in his military uniform.[3] Whatever the cause, shortly after his return to the United States, he transferred from Columbia to Harvard, where he studied with Earnest Hooton, Alfred Tozzer, and Roland Dixon.[1] After a year of classes at Harvard, Linton proceeded to do more fieldwork, first at Mesa Verde and then as a member of the Bayard Dominick Expedition led by E.S.C. Handy under the auspices of the Bishop Museum to the Marquesas.[4] While in the Pacific, his focus shifted from archaeology to cultural anthropology, although he would retain a keen interest in material culture and 'primitive' art throughout his life. He returned from the Marquesas in 1922 and eventually received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1925.[1]

Academic career:

Linton used his Harvard connections to secure a position at the Field Museum of Chicago after his return from the Marquesas. His official position was as Curator of American Indian materials. He continued working on digs in Ohio which he had first begun as a graduate student, but also began working through the museum's archival material on the Pawnee and published data collected by others in a series of articles and museum bulletins. While at the Field Museum he worked with illustrator and future children's book artist and author Holling Clancy Holling. Between 1925 and 1927, Linton undertook an extensive collecting trip to Madagascar for the field museum, exploring the western end of the Austronesian diaspora after having studied the eastern end of this culture in the Marquesas. He did his own fieldwork there as well, and the book that resulted, The Tanala: A Hill Tribe of Madagascar (1933), was the most detailed ethnography he would publish.[1] On his return to the United States, Linton took a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where the Department of Sociology had expanded to include an anthropology unit. Linton thus served as the first member of what would later become a separate department. Several of his students went on to become important anthropologists, such as Clyde Kluckhohn, Marvin Opler, Philleo Nash, and Sol Tax. Up to this point, Linton had been primarily a researcher in a rather romantic vein, and his years at Wisconsin were the period in which he developed his ability to teach and publish as a theoretician. This fact, combined with his penchant for popular writing and his intellectual encounter with Radcliffe-Brown (then at the University of Chicago), led to the publication of his textbook The Study of Man (1936).[1] It was also during this period that he married his third wife, Adelin Hohlfeld, who worked as his secretary and editor as well as his collaborator—many of the popular pieces published jointly by them (such as Halloween Through Twenty Centuries) were in fact entirely written by Adelin Hohlfield. In 1937 Linton came to Columbia University, appointed to the post of head of the Anthropology department after the retirement of Franz Boas. The choice was opposed by most of Boas' students, with whom Linton had never been on good terms. The Boasians had expected Ruth Benedict to be the choice for Boas' successor. As head of the department Linton informed against Boas and many of his students to the FBI, accusing them of being communists. This led to some of them being fired and blacklisted, for example Gene Weltfish.[3] Throughout his life Linton maintained an intense personal animosity against the Boasians, particularly against Ruth Benedict, and he was a fierce critic of the Culture and Personality approach. According to Sidney Mintz who was a colleague of Linton at Yale, he even once jokingly boasted that he had killed Benedict using a Tanala magic charm.[5][6] When World War II broke out, Linton became involved in war-planning and his thoughts on the war and the role of the United States (and American Anthropology) could be seen in several works of the post-war period, most notably The Science of Man in the World Crisis (1945) and Most of the World. It was during the war that Linton also undertook a long trip to South America, where he experienced a coronary occlusion that left him in precarious health. After the war Linton moved to Yale University, a center for anthropologists such as G. P. Murdock who had collaborated with the US government. He taught there from 1946 to 1953, where he continued to publish on culture and personality. It was during this period that he also began writing The Tree of Culture, an ambitious global overview of human culture. Linton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950.[7] He died of complications relating to his trip in South America on Christmas Eve, 1953. His wife, Adelin Hohlfield Linton, completed The Tree of Culture which went on to become a popular textbook.
リントンは、マルケサス諸島から帰国後、ハーバード大学のコネクションを利用して、シカゴのフィールド博物館に職を得ることができた。正式な役職は、アメリカン・インディアン資料のキュレーターであった。彼は、大学院生時代に始めたオハイオでの発掘作業を続ける一方で、博物館にあるポーニー族に関する資料の調査を始め、他の人が集めたデータを一連の論文や博物館の会報で発表した。フィールド博物館在籍中は、イラストレーターで後に絵本作家となるホリング・クランシー・ホリング（Holling Clancy Holling）と仕事をした。1925年から1927年にかけて、リントンはフィールド博物館のためにマダガスカルに大規模な収集旅行に出かけ、マルケサス諸島でオーストロネシア文化の東端を研究した後、その西端を探検した。彼はマダガスカルでも独自のフィールドワークを行い、その結果、『タナラ族』という本を出版した。帰国後、リントンはウィスコンシン大学マディソン校の社会学部に就職し、人類学部門を持つようになった[1]。このようにリントンは、後に独立した学部となる大学の最初のメンバーとして活躍した。彼の教え子の中には、クライド・クラックホーン、マービン・オプラー、フィリオ・ナッシュ、ソル・タックスなど、重要な人類学者になった者がいる。それまで、リントンはどちらかといえばロマン派の研究者であったが、ウィスコンシン大学時代は、理論家としての教育や出版に力を発揮する時期であった。また、3番目の妻アデリン・ホールフェルドと結婚したのもこの時期で、彼女は秘書兼編集者として、また彼の協力者として働き、二人が共同で出版した大衆的な作品（『20世紀を貫くハロウィーン』など）の多くは、実際にはアデリン・ホールフェルドがすべて執筆したものである。1937年、リントンはコロンビア大学にやってきた。フランツ・ボアズの退任に伴い、人類学部長に任命されたのである。この人事には、ボアスの教え子たちのほとんどが反対した。ボアズ派の人たちは、ボアズの後継者にルース・ベネディクトが選ばれると予想していたのだ。リントンは学部長として、ボアズや多くの学生をFBIに告発し、共産主義者であると訴えた。リントンは生涯を通じてボアズ派、特にルース・ベネディクトに対して激しい個人的敵意を持ち続け、文化と人格のアプローチを激しく批判していた[3]。イェール大学でリントンの同僚であったシドニー・ミンツによれば、タナラの呪術を使ってベネディクトを殺したと冗談めかして自慢したこともあったという。第二次世界大戦が勃発するとリントンは戦争計画に関与し、戦争とアメリカ（とアメリカ人類学）の役割に関する彼の考えは戦後のいくつかの著作、特にThe Science of Man in the World Crisis (1945) と Most of the Worldで確認することができる[5][6]. 戦時中、リントンは南米への長期旅行も行ったが、そこで冠動脈閉塞を経験し、健康状態は不安定なままであった。戦後、リントンは、G・P・マードックなどアメリカ政府と協力した人類学者の拠点であるイェール大学に移った。1946年から1953年までそこで教鞭をとり、文化や人格に関する論文を発表し続けた。また、この時期に、人類文化を世界規模で概観する野心作『文化の木』の執筆を開始した。1950年にアメリカ芸術科学アカデミーのフェローに選出された[7]。1953年のクリスマスイブに南米での旅行中の合併症で死去。妻のアデリン・ホールフィールド・リントン（Adelin Hohlfield Linton）が『文化の木』を完成させ、人気のある教科書となった.

Work：

The Study of Man established Linton as one of anthropology's premier theorists, particularly amongst sociologists who worked outside of the Boasian mainstream. In this work he developed the concepts of status and role for describing the patterns of behavior in society. According to Linton, ascribed status is assigned to an individual without reference to their innate differences or abilities. Whereas Achieved status is determined by an individual's performance or effort. Linton noted that while the definitions of the two concepts are clear and distinct, it is not always easy to identify whether an individual's status is ascribed or achieved. His perspective offers a deviation from the view that ascribed statuses are always fixed. For Linton a role is the set of behaviors associated with a status, and performing the role by doing the associated behaviors is the way in which a status is inhabited. Throughout this early period Linton became interested in the problem of acculturation, working with Robert Redfield and Melville Herskovits on a prestigious Social Science Research Council subcommittee of the Committee on Personality and Culture. The result was a seminal jointly-authored piece entitled Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation (1936). Linton also obtained money from the Works Progress Administration for students to produce work which studied acculturation. The volume Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes is an example of the work in this period, and Linton's contributions to the volume remain his most influential writings on acculturation. Linton's interest in culture and personality also expressed itself in the form of a seminar he organized with Abram Kardiner at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.

　■Ruth Benedict (1887-1948)　［→ cf. Edward Sapir 1884-1939］

"Pattern of culture" 1934

『菊と刀』 1946

　■Margaret Mead (1901-1978) ［→ cf. Talcott Parsons 1902-1979］

『サモアの思春期』1928

『ニューギニアの成育』1930

『３つの未開社会における性と気質』1935

ミードの特長は、ボアズのCultural relativism とベネディクトの Patterns of culture が節合されていることである。

『男性と女性』1949

　■Clyde Kluckhohn ( 1905-1960)

Navaho witchcraft 1944, The Navaho 1946, Children of the people 1947, Mirror for man 1949.

リンク

マーカスとフィッシャー『文化批判としての人類学』ノート

文献（上のもの以外の……）

マンドラー，J.M.とG・マンドラー（1973）「実験心理学におけるディアスポラ：ゲシュタルト主義者を中心に」（近藤邦夫訳）、 Pp.77-141., 『亡命の現代史４：社会科学者・心理学者』ヒューズ、アドルノ等、みすず書房（The intellectual migration : Europe and America, 1930-1960, edited by Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969.）

Anthony F. C. Wallace, Culture and Personality. New York: Random House, 1961, 1970

Copyleft, CC, Mitzub'ixi Quq Chi'j, 1996-2099

文化人類学年表　医療人類学辞典　

Joris Hoefnagel

Ralph Linton (27 February 1893 – 24 December 1953) was a respected American anthropologist of the mid-20th century, particularly remembered for his texts The Study of Man (1936) and The Tree of Culture (1955). One of Linton's major contributions to anthropology was defining a distinction between status and role. Early life and education; Linton was born into a family of Quaker restaurant entrepreneurs in Philadelphia in 1893 and entered Swarthmore College in 1911. He was an indifferent student and resisted his father's pressures to prepare himself for the life of a professional. He grew interested in archaeology after participating in a field school in the southwest and took a year off of his studies to participate in another archaeological excavation at Quiriguá in Guatemala. Having found a strong focus he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1915.[1] Although Linton became a prominent anthropologist, his graduate education took place largely at the periphery of the discipline. He attended the University of Pennsylvania, where he earned his master's degree studying with Frank Speck while undertaking additional archaeological field work in New Jersey and New Mexico.[1] He was admitted to a Ph.D. program at Columbia University thereafter, but did not become close to Franz Boas, the doyen of anthropology in that era. When America entered World War I, Linton enlisted and served in France during 1917–1919 with Battery D, 149th Field Artillery, 42nd (Rainbow) Division. Linton served as a corporal and saw battle at the trenches, experiencing first hand a German gas attack. Linton's military experience would be a major influence on his subsequent work. One of his first published articles was "Totemism and the A.E.F." (Published in American Anthropologist vol. 26:294–300)", in which he argued that the way in which military units often identified with their symbols could be considered a kind of totemism.[2] His military fervor probably did not do anything to improve his relationship with the pacifist Franz Boas, who abhorred all displays of nationalism or jingoism. An anecdote has it that Linton was rebuked by Boas when he appeared in class in his military uniform.[3] Whatever the cause, shortly after his return to the United States, he transferred from Columbia to Harvard, where he studied with Earnest Hooton, Alfred Tozzer, and Roland Dixon.[1] After a year of classes at Harvard, Linton proceeded to do more fieldwork, first at Mesa Verde and then as a member of the Bayard Dominick Expedition led by E.S.C. Handy under the auspices of the Bishop Museum to the Marquesas.[4] While in the Pacific, his focus shifted from archaeology to cultural anthropology, although he would retain a keen interest in material culture and 'primitive' art throughout his life. He returned from the Marquesas in 1922 and eventually received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1925.[1]
Academic career: Linton used his Harvard connections to secure a position at the Field Museum of Chicago after his return from the Marquesas. His official position was as Curator of American Indian materials. He continued working on digs in Ohio which he had first begun as a graduate student, but also began working through the museum's archival material on the Pawnee and published data collected by others in a series of articles and museum bulletins. While at the Field Museum he worked with illustrator and future children's book artist and author Holling Clancy Holling. Between 1925 and 1927, Linton undertook an extensive collecting trip to Madagascar for the field museum, exploring the western end of the Austronesian diaspora after having studied the eastern end of this culture in the Marquesas. He did his own fieldwork there as well, and the book that resulted, The Tanala: A Hill Tribe of Madagascar (1933), was the most detailed ethnography he would publish.[1] On his return to the United States, Linton took a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where the Department of Sociology had expanded to include an anthropology unit. Linton thus served as the first member of what would later become a separate department. Several of his students went on to become important anthropologists, such as Clyde Kluckhohn, Marvin Opler, Philleo Nash, and Sol Tax. Up to this point, Linton had been primarily a researcher in a rather romantic vein, and his years at Wisconsin were the period in which he developed his ability to teach and publish as a theoretician. This fact, combined with his penchant for popular writing and his intellectual encounter with Radcliffe-Brown (then at the University of Chicago), led to the publication of his textbook The Study of Man (1936).[1] It was also during this period that he married his third wife, Adelin Hohlfeld, who worked as his secretary and editor as well as his collaborator—many of the popular pieces published jointly by them (such as Halloween Through Twenty Centuries) were in fact entirely written by Adelin Hohlfield. In 1937 Linton came to Columbia University, appointed to the post of head of the Anthropology department after the retirement of Franz Boas. The choice was opposed by most of Boas' students, with whom Linton had never been on good terms. The Boasians had expected Ruth Benedict to be the choice for Boas' successor. As head of the department Linton informed against Boas and many of his students to the FBI, accusing them of being communists. This led to some of them being fired and blacklisted, for example Gene Weltfish.[3] Throughout his life Linton maintained an intense personal animosity against the Boasians, particularly against Ruth Benedict, and he was a fierce critic of the Culture and Personality approach. According to Sidney Mintz who was a colleague of Linton at Yale, he even once jokingly boasted that he had killed Benedict using a Tanala magic charm.[5][6] When World War II broke out, Linton became involved in war-planning and his thoughts on the war and the role of the United States (and American Anthropology) could be seen in several works of the post-war period, most notably The Science of Man in the World Crisis (1945) and Most of the World. It was during the war that Linton also undertook a long trip to South America, where he experienced a coronary occlusion that left him in precarious health. After the war Linton moved to Yale University, a center for anthropologists such as G. P. Murdock who had collaborated with the US government. He taught there from 1946 to 1953, where he continued to publish on culture and personality. It was during this period that he also began writing The Tree of Culture, an ambitious global overview of human culture. Linton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950.[7] He died of complications relating to his trip in South America on Christmas Eve, 1953. His wife, Adelin Hohlfield Linton, completed The Tree of Culture which went on to become a popular textbook.	リントンは、マルケサス諸島から帰国後、ハーバード大学のコネクションを利用して、シカゴのフィールド博物館に職を得ることができた。正式な役職は、アメリカン・インディアン資料のキュレーターであった。彼は、大学院生時代に始めたオハイオでの発掘作業を続ける一方で、博物館にあるポーニー族に関する資料の調査を始め、他の人が集めたデータを一連の論文や博物館の会報で発表した。フィールド博物館在籍中は、イラストレーターで後に絵本作家となるホリング・クランシー・ホリング（Holling Clancy Holling）と仕事をした。1925年から1927年にかけて、リントンはフィールド博物館のためにマダガスカルに大規模な収集旅行に出かけ、マルケサス諸島でオーストロネシア文化の東端を研究した後、その西端を探検した。彼はマダガスカルでも独自のフィールドワークを行い、その結果、『タナラ族』という本を出版した。帰国後、リントンはウィスコンシン大学マディソン校の社会学部に就職し、人類学部門を持つようになった[1]。このようにリントンは、後に独立した学部となる大学の最初のメンバーとして活躍した。彼の教え子の中には、クライド・クラックホーン、マービン・オプラー、フィリオ・ナッシュ、ソル・タックスなど、重要な人類学者になった者がいる。それまで、リントンはどちらかといえばロマン派の研究者であったが、ウィスコンシン大学時代は、理論家としての教育や出版に力を発揮する時期であった。また、3番目の妻アデリン・ホールフェルドと結婚したのもこの時期で、彼女は秘書兼編集者として、また彼の協力者として働き、二人が共同で出版した大衆的な作品（『20世紀を貫くハロウィーン』など）の多くは、実際にはアデリン・ホールフェルドがすべて執筆したものである。1937年、リントンはコロンビア大学にやってきた。フランツ・ボアズの退任に伴い、人類学部長に任命されたのである。この人事には、ボアスの教え子たちのほとんどが反対した。ボアズ派の人たちは、ボアズの後継者にルース・ベネディクトが選ばれると予想していたのだ。リントンは学部長として、ボアズや多くの学生をFBIに告発し、共産主義者であると訴えた。リントンは生涯を通じてボアズ派、特にルース・ベネディクトに対して激しい個人的敵意を持ち続け、文化と人格のアプローチを激しく批判していた[3]。イェール大学でリントンの同僚であったシドニー・ミンツによれば、タナラの呪術を使ってベネディクトを殺したと冗談めかして自慢したこともあったという。第二次世界大戦が勃発するとリントンは戦争計画に関与し、戦争とアメリカ（とアメリカ人類学）の役割に関する彼の考えは戦後のいくつかの著作、特にThe Science of Man in the World Crisis (1945) と Most of the Worldで確認することができる[5][6]. 戦時中、リントンは南米への長期旅行も行ったが、そこで冠動脈閉塞を経験し、健康状態は不安定なままであった。戦後、リントンは、G・P・マードックなどアメリカ政府と協力した人類学者の拠点であるイェール大学に移った。1946年から1953年までそこで教鞭をとり、文化や人格に関する論文を発表し続けた。また、この時期に、人類文化を世界規模で概観する野心作『文化の木』の執筆を開始した。1950年にアメリカ芸術科学アカデミーのフェローに選出された[7]。1953年のクリスマスイブに南米での旅行中の合併症で死去。妻のアデリン・ホールフィールド・リントン（Adelin Hohlfield Linton）が『文化の木』を完成させ、人気のある教科書となった.
Work： The Study of Man established Linton as one of anthropology's premier theorists, particularly amongst sociologists who worked outside of the Boasian mainstream. In this work he developed the concepts of status and role for describing the patterns of behavior in society. According to Linton, ascribed status is assigned to an individual without reference to their innate differences or abilities. Whereas Achieved status is determined by an individual's performance or effort. Linton noted that while the definitions of the two concepts are clear and distinct, it is not always easy to identify whether an individual's status is ascribed or achieved. His perspective offers a deviation from the view that ascribed statuses are always fixed. For Linton a role is the set of behaviors associated with a status, and performing the role by doing the associated behaviors is the way in which a status is inhabited. Throughout this early period Linton became interested in the problem of acculturation, working with Robert Redfield and Melville Herskovits on a prestigious Social Science Research Council subcommittee of the Committee on Personality and Culture. The result was a seminal jointly-authored piece entitled Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation (1936). Linton also obtained money from the Works Progress Administration for students to produce work which studied acculturation. The volume Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes is an example of the work in this period, and Linton's contributions to the volume remain his most influential writings on acculturation. Linton's interest in culture and personality also expressed itself in the form of a seminar he organized with Abram Kardiner at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.