はじめによんでください

イシ

Ishi c. 1861-1916, ひとりのヤヒ先住民、解説：池田光穂

左：35歳のクローバーと、右：イシ（推計 50歳； ca.1861-1916）1911年撮影（ウィキコモンズ）

「イシの物語」と言うと、歴史家やその他の権威筋が、既知の事柄を、一貫した最終的な全体像 や形づくることを目的としてかきあつめ、再話した、『決定版イシ物語』を意味しうるかもしれない。しかし、私たちはそのような展望を採用することはできな い。物語は未完であり、かつ増殖している——ジェームズ・クリフォード「イシの物語」『リターンズ』2020:103.

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Ishi (c. 1861 – March 25, 1916) was the last known member of the Native American Yahi people from the present-day state of California in the United States. The rest of the Yahi (as well as many members of their parent tribe, the Yana) were killed in the California genocide in the 19th century. Ishi, who was widely described as the "last wild Indian" in the United States, lived most of his life isolated from modern North American culture. In 1911, aged 50, he emerged at a barn and corral, 2 mi (3.2 km) from downtown Oroville, California. Ishi, which means "man" in the Yana language, is an adopted name. The anthropologist Alfred Kroeber gave him this name because in the Yahi culture, tradition demanded that he not speak his own name until formally introduced by another Yahi.[2] When asked his name, he said: "I have none, because there were no people to name me," meaning that there was no other Yahi to speak his name on his behalf. Ishi was taken in by anthropologists at the University of California, Berkeley, who both studied him and hired him as a janitor. He lived most of his remaining five years in a university building in San Francisco. His life was depicted and discussed in multiple films and books, notably the biographical account Ishi in Two Worlds published by Theodora Kroeber in 1961.[3][4][5][6]	イシ（1861年頃 - 1916年3月25日）は、現在のアメリカ合衆国カリフォルニア州に住んでいたネイティブ・アメリカン、ヤヒ族の最後のメンバーとして知られている。残り のヤヒ族（および彼らの親部族であるヤナ族の多くのメンバー）は、19世紀のカリフォルニア大虐殺で殺された。アメリカ最後の野生のインディアン」と評さ れたイシは、その生涯のほとんどを、現代の北米文化から隔離されて過ごした。1911年、50歳になった彼は、カリフォルニア州オロビルのダウンタウンか ら3.2km離れた納屋と家畜小屋に姿を現した。 ヤナ語で「男」を意味する「イシ」は養子名である。人類学者のアルフレッド・クルーバーが彼にこの名前をつけたのは、ヤヒ族の文化では、他のヤヒ族から正 式に紹介されるまで自分の名前を口にしてはならないという伝統があったからである[2]： 「と答えた。つまり、彼の名前を代弁してくれる他のヤヒ族がいなかったということである。 イシはカリフォルニア大学バークレー校の人類学者に引き取られ、研究されるとともに清掃員として雇われた。彼は残りの5年のほとんどをサンフランシスコの 大学の建物で暮らした。彼の人生は複数の映画や本で描かれ、議論された。特に1961年にセオドラ・クルーバーによって出版された伝記『Ishi in Two Worlds』は有名である[3][4][5][6]。
Biography Early life Ishi, August 29, 1911: Deer Creek Indian The Wild Man[7] In 1865,[8] The Yahi were attacked in the Three Knolls Massacre, in which 40 of their members were killed. Although 33 Yahi survived to escape, cattlemen killed about half of the survivors. The last survivors, including Ishi and his family, went into hiding for the next 44 years. Their tribe was popularly believed to be extinct.[9] Prior to the California Gold Rush of 1848–1855, the Yahi population probably numbered several hundred, while the total Yana in the larger region numbered around 3,000.[10] The gold rush brought tens of thousands of miners and settlers to northern California, putting pressure on native populations. Gold mining damaged water supplies and killed fish; deer became more scarce. The settlers brought new infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles.[11] The northern Yana group became extinct while the central and southern groups (who later became part of Redding Rancheria) and Yahi populations dropped dramatically. Searching for food, they came into conflict with settlers, who set bounties of 50 cents per scalp and 5 dollars per head on the natives. In 1865, white settlers attacked a group of Yahi while they were still asleep.[12] Richard Burrill wrote, in Ishi Rediscovered: "In 1865, near the Yahi's special place, Black Rock, the waters of Mill Creek turned red at the Three Knolls Massacre. 'Sixteen' or 'seventeen' Indian fighters killed about forty Yahi, as part of a retaliatory attack for two white women and a man killed at the Workman's household on Lower Concow Creek near Oroville. Eleven of the Indian fighters that day were Robert A. Anderson, Harmon (Hi) Good, Sim Moak, Hardy Thomasson, Jack Houser, Henry Curtis, his brother Frank Curtis, as well as Tom Gore, Bill Matthews, and William Merithew. W. J. Seagraves visited the site, too, but some time after the battle had been fought. Robert Anderson wrote, "Into the stream they leaped, but few got out alive. Instead many dead bodies floated down the rapid current." One captive Indian woman named Mariah from Big Meadows (Lake Almanor today), was one of those who did escape. The Three Knolls massacre is also described in Theodora Kroeber's Ishi in Two Worlds. Since then more has been learned. It is estimated that with this massacre, Ishi's entire cultural group, the Yana/Yahi, may have been reduced to about sixty individuals. From 1859 to 1911, Ishi's remote band became more and more infiltrated by non-Yahi Indian representatives, such as Wintun, Nomlaki, and Pit River individuals. In 1879, the federal government started Indian boarding schools in California. Some men from the reservations became renegades in the hills. Volunteers among the settlers and military troops carried out additional campaigns against the northern California Indian tribes during that period.[13] In late 1908, a group of surveyors came across the camp inhabited by two men, a middle-aged woman, and an elderly woman. These were Ishi, his uncle, his mother, and a woman who was either a relative or Ishi's wife. The former three fled while the elderly woman tried to hide herself, as she was crippled and unable to flee. The surveyors ransacked the camp, taking fur capes, arrows, bows, and nets. When Ishi appeared near Oroville three years later, he was alone and communicated through mime that his three companions had all died, his uncle and mother by drowning. [14] A. L. Kroeber, Ishi[15] (Cropped from: Sam Batwai, Alfred L. Kroeber, and Ishi, at Parnassus Heights in 1911) [10] Arrival into European American society After the 1908 encounter, Ishi spent three more years in the wilderness. It is unknown exactly when the rest of his family died. Starving and alone, Ishi, at around the age of 50, emerged on August 29, 1911, at the Charles Ward[16] slaughterhouse back corral[17] near Oroville, California, after forest fires in the area.[18][19] He was found pre-sunset[20][21] by Floyd Hefner, son of the next-door dairy owner (who was in town), who was "hanging out", and who went to harness the horses to the wagon for the ride back to Oroville, for the workers and meat deliveries.[22] Witnessing slaughterhouse workers included Lewis "Diamond Dick" Cassings, a "drugstore cowboy". Later, after Sheriff J.B. Webber arrived, the Sheriff directed Adolph Kessler, a nineteen-year-old slaughterhouse worker, to handcuff Ishi, who smiled and complied.[23][24][25][26][27][28] The "wild man" caught the imagination and attention of thousands of onlookers and curiosity seekers. University of California, Berkeley anthropology professors read about him and "brought him"[29] to the Affiliated Colleges Museum (1903–1931),[18] in an old law school building on the University of California's Affiliated Colleges campus[30] on Parnassus Heights, San Francisco. Studied by the university,[31] Ishi also worked as a janitor and lived at the museum the remaining five years of his life. In October 1911, Ishi, Sam Batwi, T. T. Waterman, and A. L. Kroeber, went to the Orpheum Opera House in San Francisco to see Lily Lena (Alice Mary Ann Mathilda Archer, born 1877)[32][33][34][35] the "London Songbird," known for "kaleidoscopic" costume changes. Lena gave Ishi a piece of gum as a token.[36] On May 13, 1914,[37] Ishi, T. T. Waterman, A.L. Kroeber, Dr. Saxton Pope, and Saxton Pope Jr. (11 years old), took Southern Pacific's Cascade Limited overnight train, from the Oakland Mole and Pier to Vina, California, on a trek in the homelands of the Deer Creek area of Tehama county,[38] researching and mapping for the University of California,[10][39] fleeing on May 30, 1914, during the Lassen Peak volcano eruption. T.T. Waterman and A.L. Kroeber, director of the museum, studied Ishi closely over the years and interviewed him at length in an effort to reconstruct Yahi culture. He described family units, naming patterns, and the ceremonies that he knew. Much tradition had already been lost when he was growing up, as there were few older survivors in his group. He identified material items and showed the techniques by which they were made. In February 1915, during the Panama–Pacific International Exposition, Ishi was filmed in the Sutro Forest with the actress Grace Darling for Hearst-Selig News Pictorial, No. 30.[40][41] In June 1915, for three months,[10] Ishi lived in Berkeley with the anthropologist Thomas Talbot Waterman and his family.[42] Ishi, 1912 In the summer of 1915,[10] Ishi was interviewed on his native Yana language, which was recorded and studied by the linguist Edward Sapir, who had previously done work on the northern dialects.[43] These wax cylinders have had their sound recovered by Carl Haber's and Vitaliy Fadeyev's optical IRENE technology.[44][45][46][47] Death Lacking acquired immunity to common diseases, Ishi was often ill. He was treated by Saxton T. Pope, a professor of medicine at UCSF. Pope became a close friend of Ishi, and learned from him how to make bows and arrows in the Yahi way. He and Ishi often hunted together. Ishi died of tuberculosis on March 25, 1916.[48][49][1][50][51] It is said that his last words were, "You stay. I go."[52] Kroeber, who was in New York at the time of Ishi's final illness, tried to prevent an autopsy on his body, sending letters and telegrams strongly stating his objections. He believed Yahi tradition called for the body to remain intact. However, Saxton Pope, following hospital protocol, performed the autopsy regardless. Ishi's brain was preserved and his body cremated, in the mistaken belief that cremation was the traditional Yahi practice. His friends placed several items with his remains before cremation: "one of his bows, five arrows, a basket of acorn meal, a boxfull of shell bead money, a purse full of tobacco, three rings, and some obsidian flakes." Ishi's remains, in a deerskin-wrapped Pueblo Indian pottery jar, were interred at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Colma, California, near San Francisco.[53] Kroeber sent Ishi's preserved brain to the Smithsonian Institution in 1917. It was held there until August 10, 2000, when the Smithsonian repatriated it to the descendants of the Redding Rancheria and Pit River tribes. This was in accordance with the National Museum of the American Indian Act of 1989 (NMAI).[54] According to Robert Fri, director of the National Museum of Natural History, "Contrary to commonly-held belief, Ishi was not the last of his kind. In carrying out the repatriation process, we learned that as a Yahi–Yana Indian his closest living descendants are the Yana people of northern California."[55] His remains were also returned from Colma, and the tribal members intended to bury them in a secret place.[54]	略歴 生い立ち 1911年8月29日、イシ： ディア・クリーク・インディアン 野生の男[7］ 1865年[8]、ヤヒ族はスリー・ノールズ大虐殺に襲われ、40人が殺された。33人のヤヒ族が逃げ延びたものの、牛飼いたちが生存者の約半数を殺害し た。イシとその家族を含む最後の生存者は、その後44年間身を隠した。1848年から1855年のカリフォルニア・ゴールドラッシュ以前には、ヤヒ族の人 口はおそらく数百人であったが、より広い地域のヤナ族の総数は約3,000人であった[10]。 ゴールドラッシュは何万人もの鉱夫と入植者をカリフォルニア北部にもたらし、先住民の人口を圧迫した。金の採掘は水源を破壊し、魚を殺し、シカはより希少 になった。北部のヤナ族は絶滅し、中部と南部のヤヒ族（後にレディング・ランチェリアの一部となる）とヤヒ族の人口は激減した。彼らは食料を求めて入植者 と対立するようになり、彼らは原住民に頭皮1枚につき50セント、1頭につき5ドルの賞金をかけた。1865年、白人入植者たちはヤヒ族がまだ眠っている 間に襲撃した[12]。 リチャード・バリルは『Ishi Rediscovered』の中でこう書いている： 「1865年、ヤヒ族の特別な場所であるブラック・ロックの近くで、ミル・クリークの水はスリー・ノールズの虐殺で赤く染まった。オロビル近くのコンコ ウ・クリーク下流のワークマン家で殺された2人の白人女性と1人の男性に対する報復攻撃の一環として、「16人」または「17人」のインディアン戦士が約 40人のヤヒ族を殺した。その日インディアンと戦ったのは、ロバート・A・アンダーソン、ハーモン（ハイ）・グッド、シム・モーク、ハーディ・トマソン、 ジャック・ハウザー、ヘンリー・カーティス、その弟フランク・カーティス、それにトム・ゴア、ビル・マシューズ、ウィリアム・メリテューの11人であっ た。W.J.シーグレーブスもこの地を訪れているが、戦いが終わってしばらくしてのことだった。 ロバート・アンダーソンは、「彼らは小川に飛び込んだが、生きて帰れた者はほとんどいなかった。代わりに多くの死体が急流を流れていった。" ビッグ・メドウズ（現在のアルマナー湖）出身のマライアという捕虜のインディアン女性は、逃げ延びた一人だった。スリーノールズの虐殺は、セオドラ・ク ルーバーの『二つの世界のイシ』にも書かれている。 それ以来、さらに多くのことが明らかになっている。この虐殺によって、イシの全文化グループ、ヤナ／ヤヒ族は60人ほどに減少したと推定されている。 1859年から1911年まで、イシの遠隔地のバンドには、ウィントゥン、ノムラキ、ピットリバーなど、ヤヒ族以外のインディアンの代表がどんどん入り込 んできた。 1879年、連邦政府はカリフォルニアにインディアン寄宿学校を設立した。居留地出身者の中には、丘陵地帯で反逆者となった者もいた。この時期、入植者たちの志願兵と軍隊は、カリフォルニア北部のインディアン部族に対する追加キャンペーンを行った[13]。 1908年後半、調査官の一団が、2人の男性、中年の女性、年配の女性が住むキャンプに出くわした。彼らはイシ、彼の叔父、彼の母親、そしてイシの親戚か 妻である女性であった。前者の3人は逃げ、老女は足が不自由で逃げられないため身を隠そうとした。調査隊はキャンプを物色し、毛皮の頭巾、矢、弓、網を 奪った。3年後、オロビルの近くに現れたイシは一人で、パントマイムで3人の仲間は全員死に、叔父と母親は溺死したことを伝えた。[14] A. L.クローバー、イシ[15]（1911年、パルナッソス・ハイツにて、サム・バトワイ、アルフレッド・L.クルーバー、イシよりトリミング）[10]。 ヨーロッパ系アメリカ人社会への到着 1908年の出会いの後、イシはさらに3年間を荒野で過ごした。他の家族がいつ亡くなったのかは定かではない。1911年8月29日、カリフォルニア州オ ロビル近郊のチャールズ・ワード[16]屠殺場[17]で、飢えと孤独に苦しむ50歳前後のイシが姿を現した。 [18][19]彼は日没前に[20][21]、「ぶらぶらしていた」隣の酪農家の息子（町にいた）フロイド・ヘフナーによって発見され、彼は労働者と肉 の配達のために、オロヴィルへ戻るための荷馬車に馬を繋ぎに行った[22]。その後、保安官J.B.ウェバーが到着した後、保安官は19歳の屠殺場労働者 アドルフ・ケスラーにイシに手錠をかけるよう指示したが、イシは微笑んで応じた[23][24][25][26][27][28]。 この「野生の男」は、何千人もの野次馬や好奇心旺盛な人々の想像力と注目を集めた。カリフォルニア大学バークレー校の人類学の教授たちは彼について読み、 サンフランシスコのパルナッサス・ハイツにあるカリフォルニア大学付属カレッジキャンパス[30]の古い法学部の建物[18]にある付属カレッジ博物館 （1903-1931）に「連れてきた」[29]。大学で学んだイシは[31]、用務員としても働き、残りの5年間は美術館で暮らした。 1911年10月、イシ、サム・バトウィ、T・T・ウォーターマン、A・L・クローバーは、「万華鏡のような」衣装替えで知られる「ロンドンの歌姫」リ リー・レナ（アリス・メアリー・アン・マチルダ・アーチャー、1877年生まれ）[32][33][34][35]を見にサンフランシスコのオルフィウ ム・オペラハウスに行った。レナはトークンとしてイシにガムを渡した[36]。 1914年5月13日、イシ、T・T・ウォーターマン、A・L・クルーバー、サクストン・ポープ博士、サクストン・ポープJr. (11歳）は、サザン・パシフィックのカスケード・リミテッドの夜行列車に乗り、オークランド・モールとピアからカリフォルニア州ヴィナまで、テハマ郡の ディア・クリーク地域の故郷をトレッキングし、カリフォルニア大学のための調査と地図作成を行った[38][10][39]。 T.T.ウォーターマンと博物館の館長であるA.L.クローバーは、長年にわたってイシを綿密に調査し、ヤヒ族の文化を再構築するために彼に長いインタ ビューを行った。彼は家族の単位、名前の付け方、儀式について説明した。彼のグループには年配の生存者がほとんどいなかったため、彼が育った頃にはすでに 多くの伝統が失われていた。彼は材料となる品々を特定し、それらが作られた技法を示した。 1915年2月、パナマ太平洋万国博覧会の期間中、イシは女優のグレース・ダーリンとともにサトロの森で撮影され、『Hearst-Selig News Pictorial』第30号に掲載された[40][41]。 1915年6月、3ヶ月間[10]、イシは人類学者のトーマス・タルボット・ウォーターマンとその家族とバークレーで暮らした[42]。 イシ、1912年 1915年の夏[10]、イシは母国語であるヤナ語についてインタビューを受け、北部の方言について研究していた言語学者エドワード・サピアによって録 音・研究された[43]。これらの蝋のシリンダーはカール・ハーバーとヴィタリー・ファデエフの光学IRENE技術によって音が復元された[44] [45][46][47]。 死 一般的な病気に対する獲得免疫がなかったため、イシはしばしば病気にかかった。彼はUCSFの医学教授サクストン・T・ポープの治療を受けていた。ポープ はイシの親友となり、彼からヤヒ流の弓矢の作り方を学んだ。彼とイシはよく一緒に狩りをした。1916年3月25日、イシは結核のため死去した[48] [49][1][50][51]。最期の言葉は「お前は残れ。イシが最期を迎えたときニューヨークにいたクルーバーは、彼の遺体の解剖を阻止しようとし、 反対を強く表明する手紙や電報を送った。彼は、ヤヒの伝統では遺体はそのままの形で残すべきだと考えていた。しかし、サクストン・ポープは病院の手順に従 い、それにかかわらず解剖を行った。 イシの脳は保存され、火葬が伝統的なヤヒの習慣だと勘違いして、遺体は火葬された。火葬の前に、彼の友人たちは遺骨と一緒にいくつかの品物を納めた： 「彼の弓1本、矢5本、どんぐりのかご、貝殻のビーズ、タバコの入った財布、指輪3つ、黒曜石の薄片などである。鹿の皮で包まれたプエブロ・インディアン の陶器の壺に入ったイシの遺骨は、サンフランシスコ近郊のカリフォルニア州コルマにあるマウント・オリヴェット墓地に埋葬された[53]。クローバーは 1917年、イシの保存されていた脳をスミソニアン博物館に送った。それは2000年8月10日にスミソニアンがレディング・ランチェリアとピット・リ バー部族の子孫に返還するまで、そこで保管されていた。これは1989年の国立アメリカ・インディアン博物館法（NMAI）に従ったものである[54]。 国立自然史博物館のロバート・フリ館長によると、「一般に信じられていることに反して、イシはその種の最後のものではありませんでした。彼の遺骨もコルマ から返還され、部族は秘密の場所に埋葬するつもりだった[54]。
Archery Ishi used thumb draw and release with his short bows.[56][57][58][59][60][61][excessive citations] Possible multi-ethnicity Ishi with fire drill, 1914, Parnassus Heights Steven Shackley of UC Berkeley learned in 1994 of a paper by Jerald Johnson, who noted morphological evidence that Ishi's facial features and height were more typical of the Wintu and Maidu. He theorized that under pressure of diminishing populations, members of groups that were once enemies had intermarried to survive. Johnson also referred to oral histories of the Wintu and Maidu that told of the tribes' intermarrying with the Yahi.[62] The theory is still debated, and this remains unresolved. In 1996, Shackley announced work based on a study of Ishi's projectile points and those of the northern tribes. He had found that points made by Ishi were not typical of those recovered from historical Yahi sites. Because Ishi's production was more typical of points of the Nomlaki or Wintu tribes, and markedly dissimilar to those of Yahi, Shackley suggested that Ishi had been of mixed ancestry, and related to and raised among members of another of the tribes.[62] He based his conclusion on a study of the points made by Ishi, compared to others held by the museum from the Yahi, Nomlaki and Wintu cultures. Among Ishi's techniques was the use of what is known as an Ishi stick, used to run long pressure flakes.[63] This is known to be a traditional technique of the Nomlaki and Wintu tribes. Shackley suggests that Ishi learned the skill directly from a male relative of one of those tribes. These people lived in small bands, close to the Yahi. They were historically competitors with and enemies of the Yahi.[63] Similar case Ishi's story has been compared to that of Ota Benga, an Mbuti pygmy from Congo. His family had died and were not given a mourning ritual. He was taken from his home and culture. During one period, he was displayed as a zoo exhibit. Ota shot himself in the heart on March 20, 1916, five days before Ishi's death.[64] Legacy and honors The Last Yahi Indian Historical landmark, Oro Quincy Highway & Oak Avenue, Oroville, CA 95966[65][66][67] Ishi is revered by flintknappers as probably one of the last two native stone toolmakers in North America. His techniques are widely imitated by knappers. Ethnographic accounts of his toolmaking are considered to be the Rosetta Stone of lithic tool manufacture.[68] Kroeber and Waterman's 148 wax cylinder recordings (totaling 5 hours and 41 minutes) of Ishi speaking, singing, and telling stories in the Yahi language were selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry. This is an annual selection of recordings that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".[69] Writer and critic Gerald Vizenor led a campaign to have the courtyard in Dwinelle Hall at the University of California, Berkeley renamed as "Ishi Court".[70] The Ishi Wilderness Area in northeastern California, believed to be the ancestral grounds of his tribe, is named in his honor. Ishi Giant, an exceptionally large giant sequoia discovered by naturalist Dwight M. Willard in 1993, is named in his honor. Ishi was the subject of a portrait relief sculpture by Thomas Marsh in his 1990 work, Called to Rise, featuring twenty such panels of noteworthy San Franciscans, on the facade of the 25-story high-rise at 235 Pine Street, San Francisco.[71] Anthropologists at the University of California, Berkeley wrote a letter in 1999 apologizing for Ishi's treatment.[72]	アーチェリー イシは短弓でサムドロー＆リリースを使っていた[56][57][58][59][60][61][引用過多]。 多民族であった可能性 着火のためのドリルを持つイシイシ、1914年、パルナッソス・ハイツ カリフォルニア大学バークレー校のスティーブン・シャックリーは、1994年にジェラルド・ジョンソンの論文を知った。彼は、イシの顔の特徴と身長がウィ ントゥやマイドゥの典型的なものであるという形態学的証拠を指摘した。彼は、人口減少の圧力の下で、かつて敵対していたグループのメンバーが生き残るため に婚姻関係を結んだと推論した。ジョンソンはまた、ウィントゥ族とマイドゥ族がヤヒ族と婚姻関係にあったという口承史にも言及した[62]。この説はいま だに議論されており、未解決のままである。 1996年、シャックリーはイシの投石器と北方部族の投石器の研究に基づく研究を発表した。シャックリーは、イシの射出ポイントは歴史的なヤヒ族の遺跡か ら出土したものとは典型的なものではないことを発見した。シャックリーは、イシの製作したポイントはノムラキ族やウィントゥ族の典型的なものであり、ヤヒ 族のものとは著しく異なっていたことから、イシは混血であり、別の部族のメンバーと親戚関係にあり、その中で育ったのではないかと示唆した[62]。彼 は、イシの製作したポイントと、博物館が所蔵するヤヒ族、ノムラキ族、ウィントゥ族の文化から出土した他のポイントとの比較研究に基づいて結論を出した。 イシの技法の中には、長い圧力フレークを走らせるために使用されるイシ・スティックとして知られるものの使用があった[63]。これはノムラキ族とウィン トゥ族の伝統的な技法として知られている。シャックリーは、イシがこれらの部族の親戚の男性から直接この技術を学んだと示唆している。これらの部族はヤヒ 族に近い小さなバンドで暮らしていた。彼らは歴史的にヤヒ族の競争相手であり、敵でもあった[63]。 類似事例 イシの物語は、コンゴのムブティ・ピグミーであるオタ・ベンガの物語と比較されてきた。彼の家族は亡くなったが、弔いの儀式は与えられなかった。彼は家と 文化を奪われた。一時期、彼は動物園の展示物として飾られていた。太田は1916年3月20日、イシが亡くなる5日前に心臓を撃ち抜いた[64]。 遺産と栄誉 ラスト・ヤヒ・インディアン歴史的ランドマーク、オロ・クインシー・ハイウェイ＆オーク・アベニュー、オロヴィル、カリフォルニア州95966[65][66][67]。 イシはフリントナッパーから、おそらく北米で最後の2人の先住民の石器職人の1人として尊敬されている。彼の技法はナイフ職人によって広く模倣されている。彼の道具製作に関する民族誌の記述は、石器製作のロゼッタ・ストーンと考えられている[68]。 KroeberとWatermanが録音した、イシがヤヒ語で話し、歌い、物語を語る148のワックスシリンダー録音（合計5時間41分）は、米国議会図 書館によって2010年の全米録音登録に選ばれた。これは、「文化的、歴史的、美学的に重要」な録音を毎年選定するものである[69]。 作家で評論家のジェラルド・ヴィゼナーは、カリフォルニア大学バークレー校のドウィネル・ホールの中庭を「イシ・コート」と改名させるキャンペーンを主導した[70]。 カリフォルニア州北東部にあるイシ原生地域は、彼の部族の祖先の地であると信じられており、彼に敬意を表して命名された。 1993年にナチュラリストのドワイト・M・ウィラードによって発見された、非常に大きなジャイアント・セコイアであるイシ・ジャイアントは、彼に敬意を表して命名された。 サンフランシスコのパイン・ストリート235番地にある25階建ての高層ビルのファサードには、トーマス・マーシュが1990年に制作した作品『Called to Rise』の中で、サンフランシスコの著名人20人の肖像レリーフが飾られている[71]。 カリフォルニア大学バークレー校の人類学者は1999年、イシ氏の扱いについて謝罪の手紙を書いた[72]。
Representation in popular culture Films Ishi: The Last of His Tribe, aired December 20, 1978, on NBC, with Eloy Casados as Ishi, written by Christopher Trumbo and Dalton Trumbo, and directed by Robert Ellis Miller.[73][74] The Last of His Tribe (1992), with Graham Greene as Ishi, is a Home Box Office movie.[75][76] Ishi: The Last Yahi (1993), is a documentary film by Jed Riffe.[77][78][79] In Search of History: Ishi, the Last of His Kind (1998), television documentary about him.[80] Literature Apperson, Eva Marie Englent (1971). "We Knew Ishi". Red Bluff, California: Walker Lithograph Co. daughter-in-law of "One-Eyed" Jack Apperson, who in 1908, sacked Ishi's Yahi village Collins, David R.; Bergren, Kristen (2000). Ishi: The Last of His People. Greensboro, NC: Morgan Reynolds. ISBN 978-1-883846-54-1. OCLC 43520986. (Young Adult Biography)[81] Kroeber wrote about Ishi in two books: Kroeber, Theodora; Kroeber, Karl (2002). Ishi in Two Worlds: a biography of the last wild Indian in North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22940-2. OCLC 50805975.[82] A mass-market, second-hand account of Ishi's life story, published in 1961, after the death of her husband Alfred, who had worked with Ishi, but had refused to write or talk about him. Ishi: Last of His Tribe. Illus. Ruth Robbins. (1964). Parnassus Press,[83][84] Berkeley, California. a juvenile fiction version of his life.[85] Ishi the Last Yahi: A Documentary History (1981), edited by Robert Heizer and Theodora Kroeber, contains additional scholarly materials[86] Merton, Thomas (1976). Ishi Means Man. Unicorn keepsake series. Vol. 8. Greensboro, N.C.: Unicorn Press. Novels Othmar Franz Lang. Meine Spur löscht der Fluss[87] (young adult novel in German) Lawrence Holcomb. The Last Yahi: A Novel About Ishi.[88] Stage productions Ishi (2008), a play written and directed by John Fisher, was performed from July 3–27, 2008, at Theatre Rhinoceros in San Francisco. The San Francisco Chronicle review said the work "is a fierce dramatic indictment of the ugliest side of California history."[89] Music Depicted in the video for "Blue Train Lines," a song by Mount Kimbie and King Krule. The video follows the story of the two anthropologists falling out. One proceeds to sell all of Ishi's possessions on eBay.[90] Comics Osamu Tezuka: The story of Ishi the primitive man, (first appeared in Weekly-Shonen-Sunday, Shogakkan in Japan, issue of October 20, 1975, total 44 pages).
Ishi Wilderness, Yahi tribe lands, now a wilderness area located in the Lassen National Forest Juana Maria, the last known member of the Nicoleño tribe Man of the Hole, the last known member of an uncontacted tribe Shanawdithit and Demasduit, the last known Beothuk Uncontacted peoples
Further reading Burrill, Richard L. (1983). Ishi: America's Last Stone Age Indian. Anthro Company. ISBN 978-1-878464-01-9. Burrill, Richard L. (2001). Ishi Rediscovered. Anthro Company. ISBN 978-1-878464-51-4. Burrill, Richard L. (2004). Ishi in His Second World: The Untold Story of Ishi in Oroville. Anthro Company. ISBN 978-1-878464-63-7.[91][92] Ishi in Oroville, eight days and seven nights, August 28 to September 4, 1911. Burrill, Richard L. (2011). Ishi's Untold Story in His First World, Parts I & II. Red Bluff, Calif.: The Anthro Company. ISBN 978-1-878464-27-9.[93][94] Burrill, Richard L. (2014). Ishi's Return Home: The 1914 Anthropological Expedition Story. Anthro Company. ISBN 978-1-878464-36-1. "All ten original sketch maps and daily field note records...from the Bancroft Library..." Johnston-Dodds, Kimberly (2002). Early California Laws and Policies Related to California Indians. California State Library, California Research Bureau.[95] A report prepared at the request of Senator John L. Burton to the California Research Bureau that focused on four examples of early State of California laws and policies that significantly impacted the California Indians' way of life. Johnston-Dodds, Kimberly A. (2009). Bearing Archival Witness to Euro-American Violence Against California Indians, 1847–1866: Decolonizing Northern California Indian Historiography (PDF). California State University, Sacramento. Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master Of Arts in History (Public History) Kroeber, Karl; Kroeber, Clifton, eds. (2003). Ishi in three centuries. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2250-2.[96] includes essays by Native Americans. Redman, Samuel J. (2016). Bone rooms: from scientific racism to human prehistory in museums. Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 978-0674660410.[97] Pope, Saxton T. (March 6, 1918). "Yahi Archery: An article on how Ishi, the last Yana indian, practiced archery: how he made his bow, his arrows, flaked arrow points, his method of shooting, how he hunted, etc". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 13 (3): 103–152. Pope, Saxton T. (1923). Hunting with the Bow & Arrow. James H. Barry Company. Pope, Saxton T.. Hunting with the Bow and Arrow at Project Gutenberg includes discussion about Ishi Pope, Saxton T. (December 1, 1974). "Hunting With Ishi – The Last Yana Indian". The Journal of California Anthropology. 1 (2). Starn, Orin (2004). Ishi's Brain: In Search of America's Last 'Wild' Indian (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05133-1. recounts the author's quest to find the remains of Ishi. (In 2000, Ishi's brain was returned to the closest related tribes, who placed it with his cremated remains.) Vizenor, Gerald (2001). "Ishi Obscura". Hastings West Northwest J. Of Envtl. L. & Pol'y. 7 (3). Waterman, Thomas Talbot (January 1915). "The Last Wild Tribe of California". Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 86. pp. 233–244. Waterman, Thomas Talbot (1917). "Ishi, The Last Yahi Indian". The Southern Workman. Hampton, Virginia: Press of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. 46: 528–537. Retrieved February 11, 2021.  Ishi, the Last Yahi Indian public domain audiobook at LibriVox  Short Nonfiction Collection Vol. 026 public domain audiobook at LibriVox (2012). References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishi

アルフレッド・ルイ ス・クローバー（ウィキペディア 日本語）

「アルフレッド・ルイス・クローバー（Alfred Louis Kroeber、1876年6月11日 - 1960年10月5日）は、アメリカ合衆国の文化人類学者。20世紀前半の学界人中、最もその影響力の大きかった人物のひとり。ニュージャージー州ホー ボーケンのドイツ系」プロテスタントのフランスの時計輸入業者の家庭（母、ユダヤ系Johanna Muller; 父、 10歳時に米国に移民したFlorence Kroeber）に生まれる。 「1901年コロンビア大学で、フランツ・ボアズの指導のもとで、自分が生まれ育ったアラパホー地方でのフィールドワークに関する論文で学位を取得。その 学 者としてのキャリアの大半をカリフォルニア州で過ごし、その殆どがカリフォルニア大学バークレー校に於いてであった。カリフォルニア大学の人類学部の本館 は、彼にちなんでクローバーホールとして知られている。 一般には文化人類学者として知られているが、考古学においても重要な業績を挙げており、また考古学と文化の関連付けを行う上での人類学への貢献も大きい。 ニューメキシコ、メキシコ、ペルーで何度か発掘活動の指揮を取ったこともある。 クローバーと彼の弟子たちは、アメリカ合衆国の西海岸におけるネイティブ・アメリカンの諸部族の文化的データを収集し、それを一冊の報告に纏め上げてい る。これは、Handbook of Indians of California (1925)として刊行されている。こうした既に消え去った部族の情報を保存しようとする試みは、今日では "Salvage ethnography" の名で呼ばれるようになった。文化地域や文化的配置といった概念を考え出し、広めたことでも知られている (Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America, 1939年)。 影響力は、非常な大きなものがあり、多くの同時代人はあごひげと口ひげを蓄えた彼の風貌を、ほとんど社会科学者とはかくあるものと看做したほどである。ク ローバーとローランド・ディクソンは、北米でのネイティヴ・アメリカンの言語の発生的な分類においても大きな影響を及ぼしている。ペヌーティ語族とホカ大 語族のような分類には彼等の所説が考慮されている。 ヤヒ族の生き残りイシと一緒に仕事をしたことでも有名。イシは、カリフォルニアの部族ヤヒ族の最後の生き残りと言われているが、その信憑性には異論がない わけではない。彼の二番目の妻シオドーラ・クローバーは、よく知られているイシの伝記『イシ 二つの世界に生きたインディアンの物語』（岩波書店）を書いている。 彼の手による教科書『文化人類学』（Anthropology、1923年、1948年）は、長く」利用された。「2度目の妻のシオドーラ・クロー バーとの間に学者カール・クローバーと作家アーシュラ・K・ル＝グウィンという子供をもうけている。シオドーラとの最初の結婚によって生まれた二人の子ど もも認知しており、テッドと歴史家のクリフトン・クローバーである。クリフトンとカールは、最近（2003年）、一緒にイシのケースについて一冊の本、 Ishi in Three Centuries. を纏め上げた。これは、イシについて、アメリカインディアンの手になるエッセイも収録した初めての学術書となるものである」アルフレッド・ルイス・クローバー）

学問的影響 Alfred Louis Kroeber, 1876-1960.

1) Although he is known primarily as a cultural anthropologist, he did significant work in archaeology and anthropological linguistics, and he contributed to anthropology by making connections between archaeology and culture. He conducted excavations in New Mexico, Mexico, and Peru. In Peru he helped found the Institute for Andean Studies (IAS) with the Peruvian anthropologist Julio C. Tello and other major scholars.

2) Kroeber and his students did important work collecting cultural data on western tribes of Native Americans. The work done in preserving information about California tribes appeared in Handbook of the Indians of California (1925). In that book, Kroeber first described a pattern in California groups where a social unit was smaller and less hierarchically organized than a tribe,[8][9] which was elaborated upon in The Patwin and their Neighbors[10] in which Kroeber first coined the term "tribelet" to describe this level of organization. Kroeber is credited with developing the concepts of culture area, cultural configuration (Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America, 1939), and cultural fatigue (Anthropology, 1963).

3) Kroeber's influence was so strong that many contemporaries adopted his style of beard and mustache as well as his views as a cultural historian.[11] During his lifetime, he was known as the "Dean of American Anthropologists". Kroeber and Roland B. Dixon were very influential in the genetic classification of Native American languages in North America, being responsible for theoretical groupings such as Penutian and Hokan, based on common languages.

4) He is noted for working with Ishi, who was claimed to be the last California Yahi Indian. (Ishi may have been of mixed ethnic heritage, with a father from the Wintu, Maidu or Nomlaki tribes.)[12] His second wife, Theodora Kracaw Kroeber, wrote a well-known biography of Ishi, Ishi in Two Worlds. Kroeber's relationship with Ishi was the subject of a film, The Last of His Tribe (1992), starring Jon Voight as Kroeber and Graham Greene as Ishi.[13][14]

5) Kroeber's textbook, Anthropology (1923, 1948), was widely used for many years. In the late 1940s, it was one of ten books required as reading for all students during their first year at Columbia University. His book, Configurations of Cultural Growth (1944), had a lasting impact on social scientific research on genius and greatness; Kroeber believed that genius arose out of culture at particular times, rather than holding to "the great man" theory.[15]

年譜

1840s　Approximately 400 Yahi people exist in California; total Yana people estimated at 1500.（イシ関連の情報は"THE STORY OF ISHI: A CHRONOLOGY by Nancy Rockafellar" による）

1849　California Gold Rush begins.

1860　Ishi's birth ca 1860.

1860〜1865年ごろ　

「ゴールドラッシュとともに押し寄せた開拓者たちの 組織的な虐殺や強制移住によって、同地のインディアン部族が民族としての体を失い、南部におよそ400人を数えたヤヒ族も1865年以降たびたび大規模な 虐殺に見舞われた」イシ）

1865　The massacres of Yahi People begin, 74 killed.

1866　Three Knolls Massacre, 40 killed; Dry Camp Massacre, 33 killed.

1870-1911　 Period of Concealment: a remnant band (five to twenty individuals) of Yahi hide in the Mill Creek area.

1871　Kingsley Cave/Morgan Valley Massacre 30 killed.

1876　ドイツ移民の子としてニュージャージ州 ホー ボーケン（Hoboken, New Jersey）で生まれる。

1892　16歳でコロンビア・カレッジに入学

1896　英語学で学士

1897　

21歳。ロマンス演劇で修士号。この前後でフランツ・ボアズ（Franz Boas, 1858-1942）に出会い人類学に専攻を転向する。スミス海峡で調査。

1897　ピアリーに連れてこられた北部エスキモー のアタンガナが亡くなり、それに対するヌクタックの行動をとりあげる（→「お父 さんのからだを返して」）

1901　コロンビア大学で人類学博士号 （Ph.D）：学位論文は、アラパホ先住民（the Arapaho）でのフィールドワークにもとづく装飾シンボリズムの研究（28ページの論文）。

1906　Henrietta Rothschildと結婚（ヘンリエッタは、1913年に結核で死亡）

n.d.（ca.1908）　カリフォルニア大学 バークレー校に赴任。カリフォルニア人類学博物館（現、Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology）に着任（キュレーター：1908-1925）、館長（1925-1946） にも就任した。

1907　"Indian Myths of South Central California" (1907), in University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4:167-250. Berkeley (Six Rumsien Costanoan myths, pp. 199–202

1907　

"The Religion of the Indians of California" (1907), in University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4:6. Berkeley, sections titled "Shamanism", "Public Ceremonies", "Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia", and "Mythology and Beliefs";

1908　November 10,1908: Surveying party surprises a band of four; Ishi escapes and hides; out of curiosity the surveyors take tools and artifacts from the camp.

1910　October, 1910: T.T. Waterman leads an expedition into the Mill Creek area to attempt to find the lost band of Indians, finds "incontrovertible evidence of their existence in a wild state." No contact made.

1911　

August 1911: Ishi walks out of Butte County wilderness into Oroville.「8月29日、ラッセン山麓の丘陵地帯にあった先祖伝来の土地を離れ、50歳前後の衰弱しきったイシひとりがサクラメント近郊の、オロ ヴィルの屠畜業者の囲いに迷い込んだ」イシ）

September 4, 1911: T.T. Waterman brings Ishi to San Francisco

October 1911: Museum of Anthropology opens at Parnassus; over the next six months, 24,000 people visit the museum and watch Ishi demonstrate arrowmaking and firebuilding.

November 22, 1911: Ishi hospitalized for respiratory infection; all TB diagnostic tests are negative.

December 26, 1911: Ishi hospitalized with bronchopneumonia, photos and casts taken of his feet.

1912　ALK; Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

September, 1912: Ishi hospitalized three days for abdominal pain.

Ishi becomes acquainted with UC Surgeon, Dr. Saxton Pope; they begin archery collaboration.

1913 　May 1913: Ishi hospitalized two days for back pain.

1914　

May 1914: Pope does a complete clinical history of Ishi: "No Premonition of Illness."

Summer 1914: Ishi, Waterman, Pope and Kroeber Visit and map the Deer Creek area of Tehama county.

1915

December 10, 1914 to Feb. 1, 1915: Ishi hospitalized for 62 days, First Tubercular Diagnosis in early 1915.

Summer 1915: Linguistics work with Edward Sapir; Ishi stays with Watermans at Berkeley for three months and is "carefully looked after."

August 22, 1915: Ishi hospitalized for six weeks, then moved to the Museum of Anthropology.

August 28, 1915: Kroeber informs T.T. Waterman and Gifford of plans for Ishi's convalescence: "We have got to handle the case. The physicians go by the book and rule, and it's up to us to apply our knowledge of the individual and our judgment to their findings and advice. He undoubtedly has had TB since last winter, though for the last 6 months it has been only latent... We must let the doctors get their crack at him, but unless he has really broken I don't think they'll find out much... If he gets back to where he was all spring, I believe the same treatment is the only one--reasonable air, exercise and distraction, with every ready tab on the progress of the disease with scales and thermometer. If ...the disease continues active even though mild, I suggest sending him preferably to our former watchman...himself a lunger of ten years' standing; or if he won't have him, then to the Appersons. Pope has the only right idea, which is to handle him as a person, not as a hospital case....I sail for Europe Tuesday...for about two months then back here. [New York and the Museum of Natural History]

September 30, 1915: Gifford replies, "Ishi has improved slowly, but he is a long way from being on his feet. The doctors feel that he will be better off in our building. ...the doctors say he is not in condition to move to the country..."

1916　

March 18, 1916: Ishi is readmitted to UC Hospital.

March 24, 1916: Kroeber writes from New York to Gifford, ...

"I am very sorry. The temperatures made me lose hope some time ago. Please stand by our contingently made outline of action, and insist on it as my personal wish. There is no objection to a cast. I do not however see that an autopsy would lead to anything of consequence. I might be willing to consent if it were to be a strict autopsy in the ordinary sense to determine the cause of death, but as they know that, I suspect that the autopsy would resolve itself into a general dissection. Please shut down on it. As to disposal of the body, I must ask you as my personal representative on the spot in this matter, to yield nothing at all under any circumstances. If there is any talk about the interests of science, say for me that science can go to hell. We propose to stand by our friends. Besides, I cannot believe that any scientific value is materially involved. We have hundreds of Indian skeletons that nobody ever comes near to study. The prime interest in this case would be of a morbid romantic nature. Please acquaint Waterman with my feelings; and convey them also to Pope, toned down in form so as not to offend him, but without concessions. When the time comes, please see that the various people in the hospital are properly thanked. They have been more than white./ You can get an individual plot in any of the public cemeteries. Draw upon any money in our keeping, for this purpose without question or formality, on my responsibility. As to monument and care, we can see later. There is no use declaring an estate unless there is official demand. Whatever balance remains after we get through, I think should be turned over to the hospital for what they have done. All this, however, can be arranged later. Yours, ALK."

March 25, 1916: Ishi Dies at UC Hospital. Autopsy performed by Dr. Jean V. Cooke. Cause of death: Advanced Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Dr. K. F. Meyer of the Hooper Foundation is called in to consult on the route of infection.(Waterman, Gifford and Pope are presumably present, Brain is removed, weighed, examined macroscopically and preserved).

3月25日ヤヒ先住民のイシ（上掲写真参照）が結核 により死 亡。サンフランシスコ墓地に葬られたといわれたが、遺体（脳）はスミソニアン博物館の国立アメリカ・インディアン博物館に保管されていた。（イシ関連の情 報は"THE STORY OF ISHI: A CHRONOLOGY by Nancy Rockafellar" による）

March 30, 1916: Gifford reports to Kroeber, "Your letter of March 24 with instructions concerning the disposal of Ishi's body and estate was received too late to be of use. In disposing of his body I took the stand which you asked me to take some time ago: namely, that he have a Christian burial like any other friend. The only possible departures from your request lie in the fact that an autopsy was performed and that the brain was preserved. However, the matter, as you well know, was not entirely in my hands, as I am not the acting head of the department. In short, what happened amounts to a compromise between science and sentiment, with myself on the side of sentiment. Everything else was carried out as you would have done it yourself, I firmly believe. The Indian told Pope some time ago that the way to dispose of the dead was to burn them, so we undoubtedly followed his wishes in that matter. In the coffin were placed one of his bows, five pieces of dentalium, a box full of shell bead money which he had saved, a purse full of tobacco, three rings, and some obsidian flakes, all of which we felt sure would be in accord with Ishi's wishes. The remains are to be placed in a niche in the columbarium at Mount Olivet Cemetery. Pope and Waterman decided, and I agreed, that a small black Pueblo jar would be far more appropriate than one of the bronze or onyx urns which the Crematory has on sale. Tomorrow afternoon Pope and I are going down to place the ashes in this jar and put it in the niche purchased. Ishi died leaving $369.52. His estate went into the hands of the Public Administrator. This official, however has certainly been very obliging throughout. He has given us every aid and every advice. The money has been expended as follows:

Floral Piece at Museum $7.50
Funeral and Cremation $150.00
Niche in columbarium $40.00
County Tax $1.00
Hospital Bill $171.00

Out of the hospital bill of $171 will be deducted the charges of the Public Administrator's office. He kindly offered to cut his fee in half. The normal fee is fourteen percent (seven for the administrator and seven for the attorney) It has been cut as you see to three and one half percent for each of these men. This means of course seven percent of $369.50.

"The funeral was private, and no flowers were brought. Waterman, Pope, Loomis, Loud Warburton, Mason and myself were the only people who attended. We of course went to the crematory also. Sincerely, E. W. Gifford."

March 27, 1916: Private Funeral in the undertakers parlor, Waterman, Pope, Loud Warburton and Gifford accompanied the body to the cemetery where cremation occurred.

Mount Olivet files contain a receipt dated March 27, 1916 c/o Public administrator for $40.00 and an interment document describing name date of death, approx. age, color sex and place of birth. Cremation date listed as March 27, 1916.

March 31, 1916: Ishi's Ashes placed in a Pueblo jar and placed in the columbarium of Mount Olivet Cemetery.

March 31, 1916 Dr. Moffitt (Dean of the Medical School) thanks Waterman for his "kind note" and states "I do not think there ever was any idea of charging him [Ishi]."

October 27, 1916: Kroeber returns from sabbatical, writes to Curator of the National Museum, Ales Hrdlicka , "I find that at Ishi's death last spring his brain was removed and preserved. There is no one here who can put it to scientific use. If you wish it, I shall be glad to deposit it in the National Museum collection."

In January, 1917 the Anthropology recorder for the U.S. National Museum asks for clarification...stating that the museum "does not know certainly whether the specimen is deposited in, or presented to, the National Museum, nor whether it comes from you personally, or from the University through your good offices..." Kroeber replies, "Ishi's brain was sent to the National Museum as a gift with the compliments of the University of California. I believe there would be some question as to who was the legal possessor before it was sent to Dr. Hrdlicka. If you will enter as donor the Department of Anthropology of the University of California, I think your record will be as accurate as you can make it."

1917　

January 1917: The (Ishi's) brain is shipped to Washington and accessioned by the Smithsonian, accession number 60884, museum number 298736. For sixty-four years it is stored in a ground glass jar in the "Division of Collections" of the Physical Anthropology Labs on the third floor of the Natural History Building. In 1981 the soft Tissue collections are rehoused and moved to Hall 25, stainless steel tank#6 and the catalogue number is attached by two permanent string tags. In 1994 the body part was moved to Third Pod, Museum Support Center. A 1999 observer reports that the brain appears to be still intact.

（イ シの）脳はワシントンに運ばれ、スミソニアン博物館に収蔵される（収蔵番号60884、博物館番号298736）。この脳は64年間、自然史博物館3階の 人類学研究所の「コレクション部門」で、すりガラスの瓶に保管された。1981年、軟組織コレクションは再びホール25のステンレスタンク#6に移され、 カタログ番号が2つの永久紐付きタグで付けられる。1994年、身体部分は博物館サポートセンターのサード・ポッドに移された。1999年の観察者の報告 によると、脳はまだ無傷のようである。

ALK; President of the American Anthropological Association (1917–1918)

Orin Starn recontacts the Smithsonian, finds new documents in the Bancroft library, proof that Kroeber shipped the brain in 1917, 1998-1999.

1920

Julio C. Tello during an archaeological expedition

1923　Anthropology: Culture Patterns & Processes (1963). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World (earlier editions in 1923 and 1948).

1925　Handbook of the Indians of California (1925), Washington, D.C: Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78

1926　Theodora Kracaw Brown（1897-1979）と再婚。

1929年10月21日：アーシュラ・クローバー・ ル＝グウィン（Ursula Kroeber Le Guin , 1929-January 22, 2018）は「カリフォルニア州バークレーで生まれた。父親はドイツ系の文化人類学者のアルフレッド・L・クローバーで、1901年にコロンビア大学でア メリカ合衆国初の人類学の博士号を取得し、カリフォルニア大学バークレー校でアメリカで2番目の人類学科を創設した[2]。母親は、夫が研究で係わったア メリカ最後の生粋のインディアン「イシ」の伝記を執筆した作家のシオドーラ・クラ コー・ブラウン。夫の伝記 Alfred Kroeber: A Personal Configuration も書いており、ル＝グウィンの幼少期を知るためのよい資料となっている。この年代においては、カトリックの聖女である聖ウルスラ(Saint Ursula)は、教会 典礼暦に掲載される聖人で、その祝日はこの日だった。このため、聖ウルスラに因んで、アーシュラ(Ursula)と名づけられた」アーシュラ・クローバー・ル＝グウィン（ウィキペディア）

1939　Cultural and natural areas of native North America / by A.L. Kroeber, Berkeley ; Los Angeles : University of California Press , [1963], c1939

1943　『フィ リッピン民族誌』三省堂

1944　Configurations of culture growth / by A.L. Kroeber, Berkeley ; Los Angeles : University of California Press , c1944

1948　

Anthropology: Culture Patterns & Processes (1963). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World (earlier editions in 1923 and 1948).

Anthropology : race, language, culture, psychology, prehistory / Kroeber

1952　The Nature of Culture (1952). Chicago.

1952　

with Clyde Kluckhohn: Culture. A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (1952). Cambridge.

The nature of culture / by A.L. Kroeber

1959　シオドラ、カリフォルニア先住民の伝記集 である"The Inland Whale"を出版。The Inland Whale. Illustrated by Joseph Crivy. 1959. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

1960　10月5日パリにて、アルフレッドが死去 （84歳）。

1961　

シオドラ、イシの伝記"Ishi in Two Worlds: a biography of the last wild Indian in North America"を出版。

 Theodora Kroeber publishes Ishi in Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961).

1963　Anthropology : biology & race / A.L. Kroeber, New York : Harcourt, Brace & World , 1963

1964　

Theodora Kroeber, Ishi, Last of His Tribe. Illus. Ruth Robbins. 1964. Parnassus Press, Berkeley, California.

Theodora Kroeber publishes a children's book, Ishi, Last of His Tribe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin co., 1964).

1965 　Source book in anthropology / by A.L. Kroeber and T.T. Waterman, Rev. ed. - New York : Johnson Reprint , 1965. (1931; 1959)

1967　Theodora Kroeber, A Green Christmas. Picture book illus. John M. Larrecq. 1967. Parnassus Press.

1968　Theodora Kroeber, Almost Ancestors: The First Californians. Kroeber and Robert F. Heizer. 1968. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco.

1970　Theodora Kroeber, Alfred Kroeber: A Personal Configuration. 1970. University of California Press, Berkeley.

1971　『文明の歴史像:人類学者の視点』社会思 想社

1973　Alfred Kroeber / Julian H. Steward, New York : Columbia University Press.

1976　Theodora Kroeber, Drawn from Life: California Indians in Pen and Brush. Compiled by Kroeber, Robert F. Heizer and Albert B. Elsasser. 1976. Ballena Press, Socorro, New Mexico.

1977　Theodora Kroeber, Carrousel. Illus. Douglas Tait. 1977. Atheneum Books. New York : Columbia University Press , 1973. - (Leaders of modern anthropology series)

1979　Theodora Kroeber, Ishi, the Last Yahi: A Documentary History. Kroeber and Robert F. Heizer. 1979. University of California Press, Berkeley. シオドラ死去（82歳）。

1983　『様式と文明』創文社

1989 　 the American Indian Act of 1989

1990　Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act

Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act is passed in 1990, requiring all federal agencies and museums receiving federal funds to inventory and identify the items, notify the affected tribes and make arrangements to return such items if the appropriate tribe made a request.The Smithsonian is exempt from NAGPRA, and would be governed by provisions of the 1989 NMAI Act.

1997　

Spring, 1997: Four federally recognized Maidu tribes (The Enterprise tribe, The Mooretown Tribe, The Berry Creek Tribe and the Mechoopda Tribe) unite to form the Butte County Native American Cultural Committee and elect Mr. Art Angle chair of the BCNACC.

May 14, 1997: The BCNACC passes Resolution 97-01 authorizing the BCNACC with the support of the Forest Service, City of Oroville, Chamber of Commerce, Butte County Board of Supervisors and the Native American Elders, to "locate and place Ishi's remains and spirit to his native Homeland."

June 6, 1997: Los Angeles Times article by Mary Curtius alerts UCSF officials to the possibility that the brain was not cremated along with Ishi's other remains. UCSF Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs initiates an internal investigation by a pathologist and a research historian.

October, 1997: Berkeley investigation fails to find further information on the brain's removal; letter sent to Arthur Angle and the BCNACC.

1998

The National Museum of the American Indian Act of 1989 mandates that the Smithsonian Institution inventory, document, and, if requested repatriate culturally affiliated human remains and funerary objects to federally recognized Native American tribes. The 1996 amendment establishes deadlines for the distribution of summaries and inventories of human remains and associated funerary objects which are to be completed and submitted to Native groups by June 1, 1998.

June 16, 1998: UCSF investigation leads to the Smithsonian, but the Director of the American Indian Program tells UCSF representative that the brain is "old folklore and it doesn't exist."

December 16, 1998: UC Research Historian meets at UCSF with Orin Starn, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Duke University, to discuss the research on the whereabouts of Ishi's brain.

1999

December 1998-January 1999: Orin Starn recontacts the Smithsonian, finds new documents in the Bancroft library, proof that Kroeber shipped the brain in 1917.

January 27, 1999: Presence of the brain at the Smithsonian is confirmed personally in a meeting between Thomas Killion of the Smithsonian repatriation office, and Orin Starn.

January 28, 1999: Butte County Native American Cultural Committee is notified by Orin Starn, who expresses his "support and admiration for your efforts to see that Ishi is finally laid to rest in a proper way."

February 17, 1999: UCSF report filed by the UCSF Research Historian, calls for UC support for repatriation and reunification of Ishi's remains.

February 19, 1999: UCSF press release on the "Discovery" of Ishi's brain leads to national news coverage.

February 23, 1999: The Butte county Native American Cultural Committee holds a press conference in Oroville, and announces "it is important to remember that the Native Americans feel that a complete body is necessary to proper burial and release of the spirit. Ishi was the last Yahi Indian, the last of his tribe that was lost forever from mother earth...in this discovery of the missing body part, we now can proceed with the repatriation of our red brother." The BCNACC announces it s intentions to travel to the Smithsonian to view the missing body part, and "assuming the viewing goes well, we will be seeking the full cooperation of the University of California and the Smithsonian Institution in the proper repatriation of all of Ishi's remains for a proper Native American burial."

March 24, 1999: eight representative members of the BCNACC visit the Smithsonian to view the brain and conduct a cleansing ceremony.

March 23-25, 1999: Press reports the Smithsonian's announcement that it will repatriate Ishi's brain to lineal descendants or culturally affiliated people, and members of the BCNACC have no cultural affiliation with the Yahi. The press reports "No Happy Ending in Sight for Ishi's Brain."

March 25, 1999: Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 25 Relative to the University of California, "urges the Regents of the University of California to immediately take any and all actions necessary to ensure that the remains of Ishi be returned to the appropriate tribal representatives...urges the Governor to direct all affected state agencies to cooperate in the effort to return the remains of Ishi so that a proper Indian burial ceremony may take place and closure may be brought to this indignity..."

April 5, 1999: California State Legislature Oversight Hearing "on the subject of the remains of Ishi and the disposition of Native American remains and artifacts."

May 1999: After a month of investigation, the Smithsonian identifies the people of the Redding Rancheria and the Pit River tribe as Ishi's closest relations and therefore designated recipients of Ishi's remains.

2000

April 12, 2000: The California state attorney general's office obtains a court order from San Mateo county for the removal of Ishi's ashes from the Colma cemetery for reburial by the designated Native American people according to their customs.

May 12 and 13, 2000: The Butte County Native American Cultural Committee organize a conference in Oroville to memorialize Ishi.

2003　

Clifton and Karl Kroeber published a book of essays on Ishi's story, which they co-edited, called, Ishi in Three Centuries.[Univ. of Nebraska Press ISBN 0803222505] This is the first scholarly book on Ishi to contain essays by Native American writers and academics.

インターネット・アーカイブ

• The Religion of the Indians of California by A. L. Kroeber
• Seven Mohave Myths by A. L. Kroeber
• Mohave Pottery by Michael J. Harner and A. L. Kroeber
  

リンク

• Alfred L. Kroeber, by Wiki
• Internet Archives on Alfred Kroeber
  

文献

• 手塚治虫「原人イシの物語」『タイガーブックス』所収、講談社、1978年（初出は『少年サンデー』昭和50（1975）年10月20日 増刊号）［→ Osamu_T_Ishi1975.pdf］
  

その他の情報

Copyleft, CC, Mitzub'ixi Quq Chi'j, 1996-2099